STATE  NORVaL  SCJIOOT 


UNIVERSITY  of  CAUFORNI/- 

LOS  AiNGELES 
LIBRARY 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 
IN  GERMANY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   ■    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  FOR  BOYS 


(Commercial,  Industrial,  and  Professional) 

IN   RELATION   TO 

PUBLIC  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION 


X6^  X 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 
IN  GERMANY 


BY 

FREDERIC  ERNEST  FARRINGTON,  Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE   PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATIONAL  ADMINISTRATION, 
TEACHERS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 
AUTHOR   OF    "  THE   PUBLIC   PRIMARY    SCHOOL    SYSTEM    OF    FRANCE," 
"FRENCH    SECONDARY   SCHOOLS,"    ETC. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1914 

4015f 


Copyright,  1914 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  April,  1914 


H  F 

00 
I 

n 


TO 

CLARK  WILLIAMS 

AT   WHOSE  SUGGESTION   THIS   STUDY 
WAS   UNDERTAKEN 


PREFACE 

In  1850  Germany  was  an  agricultural  nation  occupy- 
ing a  position  of  relatively  little  significance  in  the  in- 
dustrial world.  In  1910  its  foreign  trade  was 
second  only  to  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  time 
is  not  very  remote  when,  in  all  probability,  Eng- 
land will  no  longer  be  the  foremost  commercial  na- 
tion of  the  world.  Yet  the  major  portion  of  this 
marvelous  development  of  Germany  has  occurred  since 
1884.  In  1882  agriculture  occupied  the  attention  of 
19,225,455  of  the  population  of  the  German  Empire. 
Twenty-five  years  later,  in  1907,  this  number  had  de- 
creased to  17,681,176,  a  loss  of  approximately  eight  per 
cent.  During  this  same  period  the  industrial  population 
had  increased  from  16,058,080  to  26,386,537,  a  gain  of 
more  than  sixty-four  per  cent.  At  the  same  time  the  ex- 
pansion of  commercial  activity  was  even  more  pro- 
nounced, growing  from  4,531,080  to  8,276,239  partici- 
pants. To  give  another  concrete  and  more  significant  il- 
lustration, which  is  a  natural  consequence  of  the  figures 
just  quoted,  in  1880  Germany,  with  forty-six  millions  of 
people,  had  a  foreign  trade  of  $31  per  capita,  as  against 

V 


VI  PREFACE 

the  United  States,  with  fifty  millions  of  people  and  a 
trade  of  $32  per  capita.  In  1910  Germany's  population 
had  become  sixty-four  millions,  and  her  foreign  trade 
had  increased  to  $62  per  capita,  while  in  the  United 
States  the  corresponding  figures  were  ninety  millions  of 
population  and  $37  per  capita  in  foreign  trade.  (It  is  a 
source  of  no  little  satisfaction  to  note  that  unofficial  fig- 
ures for  the  unprecedented  year  1912  show  an  increase  of 
the  American  foreign  trade  to  more  than  $45  per  capita.) 
In  other  words,  Germany's  per  capita  foreign  trade  had 
exactly  doubled  in  thirty  years,  while  that  of  the  United 
States,  which  to  Americans  seems  to  have  made  enor- 
mous strides,  had  increased  less  than  one-sixth. 

The  fundamental  reasons  for  the  transformation  of 
the  German  people  from  an  agricultural  nation  to  an  in- 
dustrial nation  are  relatively  patent.  They  are  ulti- 
mately based  upon  the  very  large  increase  in  population 
in  proportion  to  the  agrarian  area  which  has  to  support 
that  population.  The  analysis  of  the  forces  by  which 
this  change  has  been  brought  about,  however,  is  a  much 
more  difficult  problem,  and  one  that  falls  within  the 
province  of  the  economist  rather  than  the  educator.  It 
is  evident,  nevertheless,  that  education  has  played  a  by 
no  means  inconsiderable  part  in  this  evolution,  and  it  is 
the  aim  of  this  monograph  to  describe  with  considerable 
detail  the  purpose  and  the  work  of  certain  types  of  the 
schools  that  seem  to  have  been  contributing  factors  in 


PREFACE  VU 

this  movement,  with  the  hope  of  casting  some  additional 
light  on  the  larger  social  problem,  for  "of  all  species  of 
extravagant  waste  there  is  none  more  unpardonable  than 
that  which  permits  one  nation  to  remain  in  ignorance  of 
the  clever  and  successful  methods  devised  in  another  for 
gaining  important  ends." 

The  information  presented  herewith  embodies  the  re- 
sults of  two  trips  to  Germany,  one  through  the  cities  of 
Berlin,  Cologne,  Frankfort,  Leipzig,  Mannheim,  and 
Munich,  in  the  spring  of  1912,  these  cities  having  been 
selected  partly  because  their  schools  are  particularly 
typical  of  all  kinds  of  vocational  education,  and  partly 
because  they  are  the  only  centers  in  Germany  where 
one  finds  completely  organized  Handelshochschulen,  or, 
in  American  phraseology,  "Colleges  of  Commerce";  and 
the  other,  in  the  spring  of  1913,  to  the  commercial  port 
of  Hamburg,  and  through  the  cities  of  Barmen,  Cologne, 
Dortmund,  Diisseldorf,  Duisburg,  Elberfeld,  and  Essen, 
the  most  important  centers  of  Rhineland  and  West- 
phalia, that  teeming  hive  of  modern  industrial  Germany, 
whose  commercial  relations  with  America  and  other  for- 
eign countries  occupy  the  attention  of  hundreds  of  mer- 
chants and  provide  work  for  scores  of  thousands  of 
laborers.  Of  all  these  the  Munich  schools  are  the  best 
known  in  America,  and  deservedly  so;  for,  in  that  city, 
one  finds  a  most  elaborate  system  of  schools  of  every 
type  for  pupils  of  from  thirteen  or  fourteen  to  seventeen 


VI II  PREFACE 

or  eighteen  years  of  age,  probably  the  finest  system  of 
vocational  schools  in  the  world.  Although  there  is  consid- 
erable similarity  of  organization  among  these  various  cit- 
ies, with  some  excelling  in  one  grade  of  work  while  others 
lead  in  others,  there  are,  nevertheless,  manifest  differ- 
ences to  be  expected,  for  Barmen,  Berlin,  Cologne,  Dort- 
mund, Diisseldorf,  Duisburg,  Elberfeld,  Essen,  and 
Frankfort  are  in  Prussia,  Mannheim  is  in  Baden,  Munich 
in  Bavaria,  Leipzig  in  Saxony,  while  Hamburg  is  a  free 
city,  ranking  in  every  respect  with  Prussia,  Baden,  Ba- 
varia, and  Saxony,  and  each  of  these  German  states  has 
its  own  independent  system  of  educational  organization. 
Some  of  the  more  fundamental  differences  will  be  indi- 
cated in  the  course  of  our  study. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  bear  witness  to  the  uniform  cour- 
tesy manifested  by  administrative  officials  and  teachers 
everywhere.  The  list  would  indeed  be  long  should 
I  attempt  to  record  by  name  every  individual  to  whom 
I  am  indebted,  but  I  cannot  refrain  from  making  public 
acknowledgment  of  my  special  obligations  to  Geh.  Ob.- 
Reg.-R.  Dr.  Reinhardt,  of  the  Kultusministerium ;  Geh. 
Reg.-R.  Dr.  Kiihne,  of  the  Handels-  und  Gewerbeminis- 
terium,  and  Dr.  Knork,  Direktor  der  kaufmannischen 
Schulen  der  Korporation  der  Kaufmannschaft  von  Ber- 
lin; to  Direktor  Kuemmel,  of  Barmen;  to  Professor  Dr. 
Eckert,  Direktor  Dr.  Cuppers,  Direktor  Rosenthal,  and 
Dr.  Carpenter,  of  Cologne;  to  Direktor  Dr.  May,  of 


PREFACE  IX 

Dortmund;  to  Direktor  Dr.  Balg,  of  Diisseldorf;  to  Di- 
rektor  Professor  Scheffen,  of  Duisburg;  to  Direktor 
Doerr,  of  Elberfeld;  to  Direktor  Kurz,  of  Essen;  to  Pro- 
fessor Dr.  Panzer,  Professor  Dr.  Freudenthal,  Direktor 
Dr.  Walter,  Professor  Dr.  Langenbeck,  Direktor  Doerr, 
Direktor  Neuschaefer,  and  Rektor  Siegle,  of  Frankfort; 
to  Dr.  Sickinger,  Dr.  Weber,  and  Rektor  Schmid,  of 
Mannheim;  to  Dr.  Kerschensteiner,  Inspektor  Schmid, 
Professor  Friihwald,  Dr.  Weiss,  Professor  Kiendal,  and 
Direktor  Baier,  of  Munich;  to  Professor  Dr.  Adler,  and 
Professor  Dr.  Lorey,  of  Leipzig;  to  Inspektor  Kasten, 
and  Direktor  Osbahr,  of  Hamburg;  to  the  American  con- 
sular representatives  in  Barmen,  Cologne,  Hamburg, 
Mannheim,  and  Munich;  and,  finally,  to  Dr.  John  L. 
Tildsley,  of  the  DeWitt  Clinton  High  School,  New  York, 
whose  kindly  criticism  has  been  invaluable. 

Frederic  Ernest  Farrington. 

Cologne,  March  15,  1913. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Preface v 

CHAPTER  I 
Germany  and  Its  Educational  System  ....       1 

CHAPTER  II 
Lower  Commercial  Schools  (1) 20 

CHAPTER  III 

Lower  Commercial  Schools  (2) 

Program  of  Studies 58 

CHAPTER  IV 

Lower  Commercial  Schools  (3) 
Munich  Commercial  Continuation  School    .     .118 

CHAPTER  V 
Secondary  Commercial  Schools 139 

CHAPTER  VI 
Colleges  of  Commerce        196 

CHAPTER  VII 
Conclusion 219 

APPENDIX  A 
Apprentice's  Indenture 235 

APPENDIX  B 
Lesson  in  Commercial  English 240 

Index 247 


Commercial  Education  in 
Germany 

CHAPTER  I 

GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM 

Economists  have  long  recognized  the  interdependence 

between  the  production  of  wealth  and  its  distribution, 

but,  however  ready  the  American  business      ^ 

Production 

man  has  been  to  admit  this  theoretically,  and  Distribu- 
it  is  becoming  more  and  more  patent  that,  ^^" 

in  many  respects,  his  practice  is  lagging  far  behind  his 
theory.  We  have  been  handicapped  in  this  country  by 
an  excess  of  natural  resources.  Paradoxical  though  it 
may  seem,  this  has  undoubtedly  been  conducive  to  com- 
mercial inertness.  Marketing  of  raw  products  is  a  rela- 
tively simple  matter,  for  the  market  seeks  the  supply. 
Comparatively  seldom  is  it  necessary  to  create  a  demand 
for  materials  of  this  type.  It  does  not  change  the  facts 
in  the  case  to  admit  that  these  same  raw  materials  are 
largely  necessities,  while  the  manufactured  articles  are 
more  often  the  luxuries  of  our  modern  life.  Running 
through  the  character  of  the  American  export  trade  one 
must  be  struck  with  the  preponderating  weight  exerted 
by  raw  materials — cotton,  lumber,  oil,  wheat,  and  other 

1 


2  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

agricultural  products.  The  notable  exceptions  are  largely 
confined  to  manufactured  articles,  like  typewriters,  sew- 
ing machines,  harvesting  machines — products  that  are 
due  to  tiic  inventive  genius  of  American  minds — but  the 
monopoly  created  by  the  present  peculiar  conditions  will 
continue  only  through  the  life  of  the  existing  patents. 
The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  these  patents  will  run 
out,  and  then  our  manufacturers  will  be  forced  to  meet 
the  competition  of  Germany  and  other  foreign  producers, 
for  the  American  ideas  that  have  made  this  monopoly 
possible  will  then  become  public  property.  The  fact 
remains  that,  in  those  fields  where  there  is  anything  like 
an  international  distribution  of  production,  the  American 
distributor  is  falling  behind.  While  cheap  labor  and 
other  foreign  advantages  of  production  are  large  factors, 
American  conservatism  in  distribution  also  plays  a  very 
significant  role. 

There  is  undoubtedly  much  truth  in  the  English  con- 
tention that  the  Germans  are  a  nation  of  commercial 

„  travelers,  and  in  the  retaliatory  rejoinder 

German  vs. 

English  that  the  English  are  a  nation  of  shop- 
Attitude,  keepers,  but,  at  the  present  moment,  the 
commercial  travelers  seem  to  be  succeeding  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  shopkeepers.  One  secret  of  the  German 
commercial  success  is  that  "the  German  foreign  trader 
gives  his  customers  what  they  want.  He  gets  the  trade, 
if  he  can  make  the  price,  and,  if  he  can't,  there  is  not 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL    SYSTEM  3 

much  use  of  any  other  trader  trying."  ^  Not  long  ago 
a  London  manufacturer  devised  a  special  kind  of  nut 
because  none  of  those  on  the  market  met  his  particular 
needs.  He  sent  the  drawing  to  a  Sheffield  firm,  and  re- 
quested them  to  make  up  an  order  for  him  in  accordance 
with  his  plans  and  specifications.  With  characteristic 
British  conservatism  they  replied  that  they  could  not  do 
so  without  an  entire  new  set  of  dies,  and  the  amount  of 
the  order  would  not  justify  the  expense.  Although  they 
had  been  told  very  plainly  that  none  of  their  models 
answered  the  purpose,  the  typical  British  dogged  per- 
tinacity came  to  the  fore  when  they  suggested  again  that 
some  one  of  their  patterns  would  surely  be  found  satis- 
factory. The  London  merchant  thereupon  made  a  simi- 
lar request  of  a  German  machinist,  and  received  a 
prompt  compliance  with  the  order.  This  particular  com- 
mission was  probably  no  more  profitable  to  the  German 
than  it  would  have  been  to  the  English  firm,  but  the 
German  was  looking  to  future  orders. 

Not  only  does  the  German  merchant  believe  in  giving 
people  what  they  want,  but  he  also  takes  pains  to  ascer- 
tain this  accurately,  by  sending  out  repre-      Oennan 

f^ntatives  who  can  talk  with  prospective       Trade 

•     ,1    •         ..       ■  -n     ,1  Methods, 

customers  m  their  native  tongue.    Further- 
more, the  German  merchant  receives  every  encourage- 
ment from  his  government  to  aid  him  in  his  conquest  of 
*  Whelplet,  James  D.,   in  Century,  February,   1912,  p.  490. 


4  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

the  forcic;n  markets — an  encouragement  that  may  even 
take  tlie  form  of  special  rates  for  transportation  of  raw 
material  and  manufactured  products  over  the  nationally 
owned  railroads.  "  'Tradingmade  easy/  is  the  motto  of  the 
German  government,  and  it  is  being  lived  up  to  wher- 
ever possible."  Not  only  is  the  material  side  of  distribu- 
tion looked  at  from  a  national  point  of  view,  but,  on  the 
production  side,  the  government  provides  the  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  to  develop  the  manufacturer's  ex- 
perts, the  lower  educational  institutions  to  train  his 
operatives,  as  well  as  furnishing  institutions  all  along  the 
line  that  shall  train  the  "spiritual  side"  of  the  distribut- 
ing staff,  in  the  office  force,  and  the  commercial  traveler. 
It  is  this  spiritual  side  of  the  distribution  problem — 
various  types  of  commercial  schools — that  will  occupy 
our  attention  in  the  following  chapters. 

Although  there  is  some  justification  for  the  claim  of 

Fabian  Ware,  written  in  1901,  that  "those  who  seek  for 

the  educational  foundations  of  Germany's 

German        p^^g^^   commercial   success   must   study   her 
Specialization. 

Realschulen    and    Oberrealschulen,"    one 

must  take  vigorous  exception  to  the  assertion  of  that 
same  writer  that  there  is  less  special  education  in  Ger- 
many than  in  any  other  country.  In  the  first  of  these 
statements  Mr.  Ware  has  expressed  only  a  partial  truth. 
He  might,  with  equal  justification,  have  added  by  name 
each  one  of  the  other  groups  of  typical  German  schools, 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM  5 

not  forgetting  the  great  technical  schools,  for  no  one  or 
two  classes  of  schools  is  responsible  for  the  nation's 
progress.  The  query  as  to  the  reasons  for  Teutonic  com- 
mercial success  cannot  be  expressed  in  a  simple  linear 
equation,  but  must  be  written  as  an  equation  of  higher 
degree,  whose  solution  gives  many  roots.  In  order  to 
show  the  fallacy  in  the  second  statement  of  Mr.  Ware, 
one  has  only  to  point  to  the  trade  schools  of  almost  every 
conceivable  type  that  are  to  be  found  throughout  the 
empire,  from  Konigsberg  to  Stuttgart,  from  Kiel  to 
Munich.  If  there  is  any  country  in  the  world  where 
specialization  is  rampant  that  country  is  Germany.  She 
believes  in  finding  out  early  what  a  lad  is  to  do,  and  then 
in  training  him  specifically  for  that  particular  line  of 
work  and  for  no  other. 

Indeed  the  stratification  of  German  social  and  indus- 
trial life  is  so  rigid  that  there  is  very  little  movement 

vertically,    except    within    certain    narrow     „    .  , 

Social  and 

limits.  It  is  this  very  characteristic  that  Vocational 
makes  the  German  educational  problem  so  S""^^ification. 
relatively  simple,  and  its  working  out  so  marvelously 
effective.  A  boy  is  more  than  likely  to  follow  the  busi- 
ness of  his  father.  At  all  events,  once  he  has  elected  to 
follow  any  particular  career,  the  competition  is  so  keen 
that  he  is  forced  to  stand  by  his  choice,  even  though  he 
ekes  out  but  a  precarious  existence.  Every  other  career 
to  which  he  might  turn  will  probably  be  similarly  over- 


6  COMMEKCIAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

crowded,  and,  in  any  case,  he  would  there  come  into 
competition  with  others  who  had  already  become  pro- 
ficient in  the  occupation  in  question.  This  is  a  situation 
that  it  is  very  difficult  for  an  American  to  comprehend, 
for  our  people  live  in  a  land  of  large  opportunity,  where 
failure  in  one  line  of  work  does  not  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  success  in  some  other  field  of  endeavor,  nor  even 
is  it  at  all  difficult  for  one  to  enter  this  other  field.  The 
result  of  the  situation  in  Germany  is  that  everybody  is 
forced  to  become  a  specialist,  and  that  the  choice  must 
be  made  early — in  most  cases  in  the  lower  reaches  of 
the  commercial  or  industrial  world  by  the  time  the  boy 
is  ready  to  leave  the  elementary  school  {Volksschule) 
at  fourteen  years  of  age.  This  immensely  simplifies  the 
problem  of  course  of  study  for  the  educational  authori- 
ties, for,  given  the  career  the  boy  is  to  follow,  they  de- 
termine with  fair  readiness  and  accuracy  the  subjects 
and  parts  of  subjects  that  make  up  the  most  profitable 
course  of  study  for  the  pupil  to  pursue.  When  the  boy 
completes  the  elementary  school  course  at  fourteen  he 
finds  a  position  in  the  business  world,  starting  his  career 
as  an  apprentice — it  may  be  in  a  tinsmith's,  it  may  be 
in  a  barber's  or  a  watchmaker's  shop,  it  may  be  with  a 
grocer.  When  he  enters  the  continuation  school  at  the 
opening  of  the  next  school  year  he  is  put  in  a  class  with 
other  boys  who  are  engaged  in  exactly  the  same  kind  of 
work.    During  the  following  three  or  four  years,  while 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM  7 

he  is  completing  his  apprenticeship,  he  is  also  attending 
the  school  for  a  certain  number  of  hours  per  week,  rang- 
ing usually  from  four  to  nine  in  the  various  communi- 
ties, and  here  the  schools  are  devoting  themselves  to 
developing  the  theoretical  and  business  aspects  of  his 
trade  or  career  alongside  his  real  work.  Whatever  may 
be  the  kind  of  work  he  is  doing,  his  employer  is  not 
only  required  by  law  to  give  him  time  off  to  attend  the 
school,  but  is  held  responsible  for  seeing  that  he 
attends. 

In  view  of  the  radical  differences  in  educational  or- 
ganization between  the  United  States  and  Germany,  it 

may  be  well  at  the  outset  to  describe  very 

Educational 
briefly  the  school  situation  one  finds  across   Organization: 

the  water.^     In  the  first  place,   although  i.  National  con- 
trol, 
the   educational    control    is   not   so   thor- 
oughly centralized  as  it  is  in  France,  it  is  admittedly  to 
be  considered  from  a  national,  or  rather  a  state,  point  of 
view.    Prussia  established  that  fact  indisputably  in  the 
last  decade  of  the  eighteenth  century,  even  before  its 
humihation  by  Napoleon  had  all  but  crushed  its  vitality. 
With  these  fundamental  assumptions  still  on  the  statute 
books — that  schools  are  state  institutions,  to  be  founded 
only  with  the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the  state,  and 
to  be  at  all  times  subject  to  its  examination  and  inspec- 

'  See  frontispiece  for  schematic  arrangement  of  the  German  educa- 
tional system. 


0  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

tion — the  reorganization  schemes  of  Von  Stein  and  Von 
Humboldt  were  all  the  more  readily  carried  through. 
Although  the  latter  had  been  at  one  time  opposed  to 
state  control  of  education,  the  ruin  and  devastation 
wrought  by  Napoleon  convinced  him  that  the  state  and 
the  state  alone  was  powerful  enough  to  cope  with  the 
situation.  Later  events  have  demonstrated  the  sound- 
ness of  his  conclusion,  and  this  has  been  the  guiding 
principle  in  Prussia  ever  since.  The  unification  of  the 
German  Empire  under  Bismarck  and  Emperor  William 
still  left  a  large  measure  of  autonomy  to  the  separate 
states,  but  everywhere  in  each  state  this  same  idea  is 
still  dominant:  that  education  is  a  matter  of  state  con- 
trol. Prussia  has  its  system  of  schools;  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  Baden,  Wiirtemberg,  and  all  the  rest,  each  has 
its  own.^  Of  course  there  are  minor  differences  of  de- 
tail— though  far,  far  less  than  one  finds  among  the 
states  of  our  own  nation — but  the  fundamental  ideas  and 
the  general  organization  are  everywhere  the  same,  and 
they  are  all  working  toward  a  common  end,  the  welfare 
of  the  nation  as  a  whole. 

Each  state  has  its  minister  of  education,  who  is  the 
active  head  of  the  educational  system  of  the  state,  and 
whose  control  reaches  into  the  far  corners  of  the  do- 

*  Prussia,  with  its  forty  millions  of  people  out  of  sixty-four  millions 
in  the  whole  empire,  naturally  exerts  a  preponderating  influence, 
and  may  fairly  be  taken  as  representative  of  the  best  and  most  pro- 
gressive ideas  of  the  nation. 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM  9 

main.  In  general  all  control  of  the  so-called  interna 
of  school  affairs  emanates  directly  or  indirectly  from 
this  office,  while  local  autonomy,  such  as  there  is,  is 
restricted  to  the  externa.  Programs  of  study,  qualifica- 
tions of  teachers,  training  of  teachers,  choice  of  text- 
books, and  the  like  fall  under  the  first  category,  while 
construction  of  schools,  school  equipment,  and  kindred 
affairs  not  directly  connected  with  the  processes  of  in- 
struction are  included  under  the  second  group.  Thus 
the  really  vital  matters  of  school  polity  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  central  professionally  competent  authority, 
over  which  the  individual  citizen  has  no  control, 
and  upon  which  he  can  exert  no  influence,  political  or 
otherwise.  Of  a  truth  the  educational  systems 
of  Germany  are  under  strictly  professional  con- 
trol. 

In  the  second  place,  Germany  is  a  monarchy,  with 
all  the  monarchical  ideas  and  ideals  thoroughly  domi- 
nant. The  aristocracy  in  the  political  life  ^  Monarchical 
likewise  carries  over  into  the  social  and  the  weais. 
educational  world.  Germany  is  still  far  from  conform- 
ing to  Huxley's  standard,  that  "no  system  of  public 
education  is  worth  the  name  of  national  unless  it  cre- 
ates a  great  educational  ladder,  with  one  end  in  the  gut- 
ter and  the  other  in  the  university."  Nor  even  is  there 
any  evidence  that  she  is  tending  in  that  direction.  Bis- 
marck's specter  of  the  educated  proletariat  still  looms 


10  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

large  on  the  horizon  of  the  German  political  leader. 
Not  that  there  is  any  lack  of  educational  opportunity. 
Far  from  it,  for  there  is  probably  more  widespread 
popular  education  in  Germany  to-day  than  in  any  other 
country  of  the  world.  One  has  only  to  look  at  the  two- 
tenths  of  one  per  cent,  of  illiterates  among  the  recruits 
for  the  German  army,  as  opposed  to  the  seven  and 
seven-tenths  per  cent,  in  the  total  population  of  the 
United  States,  and  even  three  per  cent,  among  the  native 
whites,  in  order  to  become  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this 
assertion,  at  least  as  far  as  our  country  is  concerned. 
,(  But  this  educational  opportunity  is  decidedly  limited  in 
scope,  and  is  largely  determined  by  the  financial  status 
of  the  parent.  In  other  words,  while  the  elementary 
schools  are  open  to  all  without  money  and  without  price, 
the  secondary  schools,  which  constitute  the  sole  open 
sesame  to  the  university  and  all  professional  careers,  as 
well  as  to  many  positions  in  the  civil  service,  are  invari- 
ably fee  institutions.  Not  only  must  the  parent  be  able 
to  pay  the  tuition  fees,  but  he  must  also  be  in  position 
to  support  his  son  for  one  or  more  years  of  inactivity, 
while  the  young  man  is  preparing  for  examinations,  or 
waiting  for  an  appointment.  The  ten  per  cent,  or  so  of 
scholarships  available  for  distribution  in  the  secondary 
schools  can  thus  accomplish  very  little  in  ameliorating 
this  state  of  affairs.  It  is  said  on  good  authority  that 
probably  not  one  boy  in  ten  thousand  who  goes  through 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM  11 

the  elementary  school  ever  gets  into  the  univer- 
sity. 

With  all  these  factors  in  hand,  and,  recalling  that  the 
scholarship  appointees  are  presumably  selected  from  the 
brilliant  pupils,  one  can  see  how  enormous  are  the 
chances  against  the  child  of  an  ordinary  workingman 
ever  breaking  into  the  circles  of  the  upper  professional 
classes.  The  whole  educational  organization  is  so  con- 
stituted as  to  perpetuate  this  intellectual  aristocracy. 
The  leaders  of  Germany,  therefore,  politically,  socially, 
economically,  and  intellectually,  are  almost  sure  to  be 
chosen  from  a  group  of  about  two  hundred  and  sixty 
thousand,  the  population  of  the  secondary  schools  at  a 
given  moment,  selected  primarily  upon  the  basis  of 
financial  ability  of  the  parents  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
instruction  in  this  type  of  school.  Within  this  rela- 
tively small  group,  however,  there  is  the  utmost  democ- 
racy of  selection,  where  almost  invariably  the  man  who 
succeeds  reaches  the  top  entirely  upon  his  merits.  It  is 
a  real  case  of  the  survival  of  the  intellectually  fit.  As 
will  readily  be  apparent  then,  Germany,  both  on  the 
score  of  centralization  of  control  without  responsibility 
to  the  people,  and  on  the  score  of  monarchical  form  of 
control  with  all  that  implies,  presents  a  set  of  condi- 
tions quite  foreign  to  anything  existing  in  this  country. 

As  is  the  case  in  France,  Germany  practically  has  two 
school  systems,  one  for  training  the  masses,  and  the 


12  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

other   for  training  the  classes.     The  first  of  these  in- 
cludes   the    Volksschulen^    and    the   Mittelschulen,    to- 
gether with  the  continuation  schools  and 

School        j^jjp  lower  vocational  schools.     The  second 
Systems. 

includes  what  the  Germans  call  the  "higher 

schools,"  but  which  make  up  what  we  in  America  would 
recognize  as  secondary  schools,  together  with  the  middle 
vocational  schools;  and  the  tertiary  or  university 
group,  in  which  we  find  the  universities,  with  their  pro- 
fessional schools,  and  other  higher  vocational  institu- 
tions. 

The  Volksschulen,  as  the  name  implies,  are  the  real 
people's  schools,  for  they  enroll  nearly  ninety-five  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  school  population  of  the  country. 
Completion  of  this  course  satisfies  the  ordinary  compul- 
sory school  attendance  requirements,  which,  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  empire,  cover  the  period  from  six  to 
fourteen  years  of  age.  This  is  a  purely  elementary 
school  course,  and  includes  substantially  the  subjects 
that  one  is  familiar  with  in  the  lower  school  work  in 
this  country. 

The  Mittelschule  (Prussia)  is  merely  a  variant  of  the 

Volksschule,  established  to  satisfy  a  certain  social  need 

and  to  meet  the  demand  for  a  little  higher  type  of  ele- 

'  It  seems  better  to  retain  many  of  the  German  names,  especially 
since  the  German  school  system  is  so  entirely  different  from  our  own 
that  to  translate  these  terms  into  English  would  almost  invariably 
give  rise  to  misconceptions. 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM  13 

mentary  education.  Small  fees,  amounting  to  about 
eight  dollars  per  year,  are  invariably  charged  in  these 
schools,  in  return  for  which  the  pupils  are  taught  one 
foreign  language,  and  the  course  continues  one  year 
longer,  extending  from  six  to  fifteen  years.  Aside  from 
the  foreign  language,  the  additional  year,  and  the 
slightly  different  social  standing  of  the  pupils  entailed 
by  the  tuition  fee,  this  school  does  not  differ  essentially 
from  the  Volksschule.  Attendance  here  carries  no  other 
privilege  than  that  conveyed  by  the  ordinary  lower 
school. 

In  any  event,  the  graduates  of  these  or  any  other 
schools  may  be  compelled  to  attend  continuation  schools 
(Fortbildungsschulen)  from  fourteen  to 
eighteen  years  of  age,  unless  they  are  in  °°  "^"^  °^ 
attendance  upon  some  other  educational 
institution.  Twelve  of  the  twenty-six  states  of  the  em- 
pire impose  this  obligation  upon  all  boys — in  some  of 
them  it  is  likewise  required  of  the  girls  as  well — and,  in 
most  of  the  other  parts  of  the  country,  the  larger  towns 
by  local  enactment  have  passed  legislation  looking  to 
the  same  end.  The  right  to  do  this  is  granted  by  one 
of  the  provisions  of  the  Imperial  Trade  Regulations. 
Without  enumerating  in  detail  the  causes  that  led  to 
the  passing  of  this  regulation,  suffice  it  for  the  moment 
to  say  that  its  recent  development  resulted  from  a  feel- 
ing of  need  for  the  enlargement  of  the  mental  horizon 


14  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

of  the  masses  of  the  people  beyond  what  the  Volksschule 
was  able  to  give,  an  enlargement  which  primarily  looked 
to  greater  economic  cfTiciency,  but  which  also  empha- 
sized the  moral  and  civic  aspects. 

The  general  basis  for  the  organization  of  continuation 
schools  can  perhaps  best  be  expressed  by  quoting  from 

1.  Basis  for  Or-  ^^-  Kerscheusteincr:  "The  ultimate  aim 
gamzation.  ^f  evcry  public  school,  which  is  supported 
out  of  the  common  funds,  is  to  train  up  its  pupils  to  be 
useful  citizens.  A  useful  citizen  is  one  who  by  his  own 
efforts  helps  the  state,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  attain 
its  purpose  as  a  law-abiding  and  cultivated  community. 
The  first  problem  of  the  school,  then,  is  to  promote  tech- 
nical skill  among  its  pupils,  and  concomitantly  to 
arouse  in  them  a  love  of  work  to  as  great  a  degree  as 
possible.  The  second  problem  is  to  train  the  pupil 
early  to  employ  this  love  of  work  and  technical  skill  in 
the  service  of  his  fellow-pupils  and  his  fellow-men.  The 
third  problem  is  to  unite  this  awakened  readiness  for 
service,  consideration,  and  moral  devotion  with  an  in- 
sight into  the  purposes  of  the  body  politic,  in  so  far  as 
the  pupil's  endowment  and  maturity  make  possible  the 
engendering  of  such  an  insight.  Our  present-day  schools 
are  not  altogether  conscious  of  this  three-fold  problem. 
Where  they  are  well  organized  they  seek  at  most  to 
solve  the  first  problem,  the  education  for  individual 
skill.    But  there  are  no  schools  for  social  service."    This 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM  15 

represents  the  ideal  of  one  of  the  foremost  practical 
schoolmen  of  Germany,  a  declaration  of  purpose  that  is 
yet  far  from  attainment,  even  in  Munich,  but  whose 
realization  seems  nearer  there  than  anywhere  else. 

The  regulations  in  force  in  Berlin  may  be  taken  as 
fairly  typical  of  those  in  force  wherever  the  continua- 
tion schools  are  found,  all  over  the  empire,  ^  ^^^^^  Reguu- 
although  there  are  variations  in  details,  as  t>o'»s. 

to  the  number  of  hours  per  week,  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion, and  the  like.  According  to  the  local  statutes  of 
Berlin^  every  male  workman  (apprentice,  journeyman, 
or  helper) ,  who  is  engaged  in  any  industrial  or  commer- 
cial work  within  the  city  limits,  must  attend  the  Berlin 
continuation  school  from  fourteen  until  the  completion 
of  his  seventeenth  year.^  This  likewise  applies  in  Ber- 
lin to  all  boys  between  these  ages  who  may  be  out  of 
work.  Exception  is  made,  however,  in  the  case  of  those 
who  may  be  attending  any  "higher  school,"  or  any 
recognized  industrial,  trade,  or  commercial  school,  as 
well  as  in  the  case  of  certain  other  specified  groups, 
among  them  graduates  of  a  six-year  higher  school,  and 
those  engaged  in  the  government  service.  Instruction 
covers  the  subjects  of  German,  arithmetic,  and  drawing, 

1  Uebersicht  uher  das  Fach-  und  Fortbildungsschulwesen  der  Stadt 
Berlin,  Schuljahr  1910-1911,  pp.  98-59. 

2  In  December,  1912,  a  similar  regulation  was  passed  applying 
to  girls  under  substantially  the  same  general  conditions,  to  become 
effective  April  1,  1913.  Ortsstatut  belreffend  die  gewerbliche  und 
kaufmdnnische  Pflichtforlbildungsschule  fur  Madchen  zu  Berlin,  1913. 


16  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

witli  special  reference  to  tlic  particular  work  in  which 
they  arc  employed,  and  may  not  amount  to  an  average 
of  more  than  six  hours  per  week  throughout  the  year, 
nor  less  than  four  hours  per  week  regularly.  These 
schools  are  all  free.  Not  only  are  employers  forced  to 
allow  their  workers  subject  to  this  regulation  time  to 
attend  school,  but  they  are  held  responsible  for  seeing 
that  the  boys  are  actually  present.  In  the  case  of  un- 
skilled labor  this  last  clause  is  not  operative,  but  the 
first  is  just  as  rigidly  required.  The  employer  who  pre- 
vents an  employee  from  attending  such  a  school  is  sub- 
ject to  a  fine  of  twenty  marks,  or  three  days  in  jail,  for 
each  offense.  On  November  1,  1910,  there  were  32,220 
boys  (5,396  in  commercial  classes)  in  these  Berlin 
schools. 

Parallel  with  the  continuation  schools,  exists  a  large 
number  of  vocational  schools  for  various  trades,  estab- 
lished upon  municipal,  guild,  or  corporate  initiative, 
which  the  state  recognizes  as  taking  the  place  of  the 
continuation  school  in  satisfying  the  compulsory  at- 
tendance requirements  from  fourteen  to  seventeen  years 
of  age. 

The  secondary  schools — known  in  Prussia  as  "higher 
schools,"  and,  in  South  Germany,  as  "middle  schools" — 
are  composed  of  several  groups  of  coordinate  schools, 
whose  common  characteristic  is  that  satisfactory  com- 
pletion of  six  years  of  work  in  any  one  of  them  entitles 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM  17 

the  boy  to  the  one-year  volunteer  privilege  in  the  army, 
instead  of  the  two  or  three  years'  service  that  are  re- 
quired of  the  conscript.    These  schools  all     _ 
^  Secondary  or 

begin  at  the  ninth  year  of  age  and  continue      "  Higher  " 
for  nine  or  six  years.    The  nine-year  schools  ^  °°  ^* 

are  the  Gymnasium,  the  Realgymnasium,  and  the  Oher- 
realschule.  The  first  is  an  out-and-out  classical  school; 
the  second  is  a  semi-classical  school,  with  Latin,  but  no 
Greek;  while  the  third  is  a  thoroughly  modern  school, 
with  two  modern  languages  and  considerable  science,  but 
no  classics.  Since  the  reform  of  1900  these  have  been 
on  an  equality  officially,  all  preparing  for  the  imiversity, 
and  with  practically  no  differentiation  of  privilege  in 
favor  of  the  graduates  of  any  type  of  school.  Each 
of  them  has  a  six-year  prototype,  known  respectively 
as  the  Progymnasium,  the  Realprogymnasium,  and  the 
Realschule,  whose  only  purpose  is  to  extend  the  oppor- 
tunity for  secondary  education  into  communities  where 
the  population  would  not  warrant  the  establishment  of  a 
nine-year  school.  Pupils  enter  these  various  types  of 
secondary  schools  either  through  a  three-year  prepara- 
tory school  department  (Vorschule),  attached  to  the 
secondary  school  in  question,  or  after  completing  the 
first  four  years  of  the  Volksschule  course.  This  point 
offers  the  only  normal  transition  from  the  elementary  to 
the  secondary  school,  and,  once  beyond  here,  the  young- 
ster finds  almost  insuperable  obstacles  to  passing  from 


18  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

one  to  the  other.     The  elementary  and  tlie  secondary 

school  systems  in  Germany  thus  exist  parallel  to  each 

other,  and  not  as  in  this  country,  with  the  secondary 

superimposed  upon  the  elementary. 

As  was  true  in  the  case  of  the  elementary  schools,  so 

with   the   secondary    schools   we    find   a   corresponding 

group  of  secondary,  or  middle  commercial, 
Secondary      ^       *  "^ ' 

Vocational  industrial,  technical,  and  trade  schools. 
Schools.  j^  ^j^^  former  case  these  special  schools 
or  courses  came  at  the  conclusion  of  the  ordinary  ele- 
mentary school  course;  while,  in  the  latter  case,  these 
vocational  schools  are  incorporated  in,  or  are  parallel 
to,  the  ordinary  secondary  schools. 

The  tertiary  group  of  schools — or,  as  we  should  say 
in  American    phraseology,    higher    education — includes 

(1)  the  universities,  with  their  philosophi- 

Higher  i  theological,  law,  and  medical  faculties; 

Education.  >  &       >         >  > 

(2)  a  number  of  colleges  of  commerce, 
with  their  general  requirements  on  a  par  with  those  of 
the  universities,  and  therefore  of  university  grade;  (3) 
academies,  which  may  roughly  be  called  "incomplete 
universities,"  inasmuch  as  they  are  institutions  with  the 
same  entrance  requirements  as  the  universities,  but  are 
lacking  in  some  one  or  more  of  the  traditional  four  fac- 
ulties; (4)  the  great  technical  colleges,  which  correspond 
to  our  own  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology;  and 
(5)     certain    other    institutions    of    equivalent    grade. 


GERMANY   AND   ITS   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM  19 

Among  these  last  must  be  included  schools  for  agri- 
culture, forestry,  military  and  naval  science,  and  other 
corresponding  kinds  of  institution. 

This   whole   educational    system,   complex   though   it 
may  seem  at  first  sight,  falls  into  two  large  groups: 
the  elementary  schools,  with  the  continua- 
tion    and     the     other     lower     vocational  ,.      ^^^°  *^" 

tion  of  Groups. 

schools;  and  the  secondary  and  tertiary. 
The  boy  who  goes  through  the  elementary  school  is 
practically  in  a  cul  de  sac,  as  far  as  getting  into  the 
secondary  or  the  tertiary  is  concerned.  The  chief  objec- 
tive difiference  between  the  first  group  and  the  second  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  elementary  school  boy  is  drafted  to 
serve  in  the  army  for  two  or  three  years,  while  the  sec- 
ondary school  boy  has  the  privilege  of  serving  as  a  one- 
year  volunteer,  a  privilege  that  can  hardly  be  looked 
upon  as  an  unalloyed  joy,  inasmuch  as  it  means  an  out- 
lay of  from  two  thousand  to  eight  thousand  marks  per 
year  for  the  living  expenses  of  the  volunteer,  which  must 
be  met  by  the  young  man's  family.  Nevertheless,  the 
social  prestige  which  attaches  to  this  volunteer  service 
is  so  highly  prized  that  the  opportunity  of  paying  this 
sum  is  counted  a  privilege  rather  than  a  burden. 


CHAPTER  II 

LOWER  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS    (1) 

Commercial   education   in   Germany   has   never   at- 
tained the  position  long  since  reached  by  industrial  edu- 
cation,   either    in    importance    or    extent. 
Growth. 

While  the  earliest  of  the  real  commercial 

schools — at  Hamburg,  Berlin,  and  Magdeburg — date 
from  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  pres- 
ent development  is  actually  of  recent  date.  The  convic- 
tion was  long  dominant,  and  is  still  prevalent  in  certain 
parts  of  the  country,  that  commercial  training  is  attained 
solely  in  the  school  of  experience.  It  is  only  since  the 
international  struggle  for  commercial  supremacy  be- 
came so  strenuous  that  the  champions  of  this  old 
laissez-faire  doctrine  have  begun  to  break  ground.  As 
has  already  been  pointed  out,  the  commercial  schools 
parallel  the  general  educational  organization  of  the 
country,  and  appear  in  three  distinct  phases:  elemen- 
tary, secondary,  and  tertiary. 

Commercial  education  in  this  elementary  or  lower 
group  is  found  in  the  ordinary  continuation  schools, 
although  there  are  certain  other  continuation  schools  with 

20 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  21 

optional  attendance,  as  well  as  commercial  evening 
schools  for  adults,  some  established  by  municipal  founda- 
tion and  some  by  chambers  of  commerce, 

guilds,  unions,  or  upon  other   more  indi-       JZ^^ ,^ 
^         '  y  ^  Schools. 

vidual  initiative.    The  continuation  school, 
which  has  been  called  the  "newest  link  in  the  German 
educational  chain,"  is  widespread  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  empire. 

It  is  obligatory  for  boys  in  twelve  of  the  twenty-six 
states,  to  wit:  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wiirtemberg,  Baden, 
Hesse,  Saxe-Weimar,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-Meiningen, 
Saxe-Coburg,  Saxe-Gotha,  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 
and  Waldeck-Pyrmont.  The  opportunities  for  girls  are 
considerably  less  general,  although  the  girls'  commer- 
cial continuation  courses  are  rather  more  numerous  than 
are  the  corresponding  industrial  courses.  Attendance  at 
continuation  schools  is  compulsory  for  girls  in  only  four 
of  the  above-mentioned  states:  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg, 
Baden,  and  Saxe-Meiningen;  while  in  six  others:  Sax- 
ony, Hesse,  Saxe-Weimar,  Saxe-Coburg,  Saxe-Gotha, 
and  Saxe-Altenburg,  this  may  be  made  compulsory  by 
local  ordinance.  In  addition  the  Imperial  Trade  Regu- 
lations clothe  communities  with  power  to  establish  com- 
pulsory continuation  schools  for  girls,  under  the  same 
conditions  as  for  boys.  In  accordance  with  the  terms  of 
this  provision  many  of  the  larger  towns  have  already 
founded  such   schools. 


22  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

Owing  to  the  varying  conditions  throughout  the  em- 
pire, figures  for  the  whole  nation  are  difficult  to  obtain, 

but,  in  1910,  of  the  boys  in  Prussia  between 
Statistics. 

the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen  who  were 

engaged  in  the  trades,  industry,  and  commerce,  almost 
exactly  thirty  per  cent,  were  in  some  type  of  continua- 
tion school.  Inasmuch  as  the  establishment  of  these 
compulsory  continuation  schools  in  that  state  is  not  uni- 
versal, but  is  entirely  dependent  upon  local  option,^  it  is 
quite  probable  that  some  of  the  other  states  would  show 
even  better  results.  In  Prussia,  of  the  385,000  so  en- 
rolled, about  340,000  were  in  industrial  schools,  and 
45,000  were  in  commercial  schools. 

The  figures  on  the  following  page  from  the  official 
reports  of  the  Prussian  Minister  of  Commerce  and  In- 
dustry ^  show  the  situation  in  Prussia. 

Even  a  hasty  consideration  of  these  figures  will  show 

some  interesting  results.    In  the  six  years  from  1904  to 

1910    the    population    of    the    industrial 
Evolution.        ,      ,      •  1 

schools    increased    over    sixty    per    cent., 

whereas  the  growth  in  the  commercial  schools  was  over 
one  hundred  per  cent.  The  number  of  schools  with  op- 
tional attendance  is  steadily  decreasing,  but  this  is  ac- 

1  This  is  not  entirely  true,  for  in  1888  the  royal  government  put  a 
compulsory  continuation  school  regulation  in  force  in  East  Prussia 
with  a  view  to  hastening  the  Germanization  of  the  Poles  who  make 
up  the  major  part  of  the  population  in  that  province. 

*  Verwaltungsbericht  des  koniglich  preussischen  Landesgewerbeamts, 
1907,  1909,  and  1912. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS 


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24  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

companied  by  an  even  greater  corresponding  increase  in 
the  numbers  with  obligatory  attendance.  (The  apparent 
exception  noted  in  the  industrial  schools  in  1910  is  due 
to  a  change  in  the  basis  of  reckoning,  which  appears  for 
the  first  time  at  that  date.  If  the  former  method  was 
still  employed  the  apparent  exception  would  disappear.) 
The  decrease  in  number  and  importance  of  the  guild  and 
union  schools,  together  with  the  accompanying  total 
growth,  indicates  that  municipalities  are  gradually  tak- 
ing over  the  support  of  this  type  of  school  that  was 
formerly  assumed  by  semi-public  organizations;  in  other 
words,  that  even  this  kind  of  education  is  being  treated 
as  a  matter  of  public,  not  private,  responsibility. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  will  show  the  sources 
of  income  for  the  Prussian  commercial  continuation 
schools  for  1908  and  1910.^ 

One  must  be  immediately  struck  with  the  exclusion  of 
all  but  instruction  expenses  from  this  table,  and  the  con- 
sequent rather  small  total  expenditure.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that,  in  the  main,  special  buildings  are  not  re- 
quired, but  the  classes  are  held  in  the  regular  school 
buildings,  either  early  in  the  morning,  or  in  the  late 
afternoon  and  early  evening. 

Although  the  beginnings  of  the  modern  commercial 
continuation  schools  may  be  traced  back  to  the  munici- 

^  Verwaltungshericht  des  kdniglich  preussischen  LandesgewerheanUs, 
1909,  1912. 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS 


25 


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26  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERINIANY 

pal  "writing  and  reckoning"  schools  of  the  seventeenth 

century,  yet  so  insignificant  was  their  development  that 

one  is  hardly  justified  in  setting  the  date 

Commercial    ^f  ^|^^jj.  foundation  before  the  third  decade 
Schools. 

of    the    nineteenth    century.^      Indeed,    it 

was  not  until  after  the  unification  of  modern  Germany, 
at  the  time  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  that  any  very 
considerable  growth  took  place.  The  opening  of  the 
last  period  in  the  development  of  this  type  of  school 
dates  from  the  founding  of  the  "German  Union  for  Com- 
mercial Instruction,"  in  1895.  The  233  commercial 
schools  in  Germany  at  that  time  had  increased  to  367 
three  years  later;  to  522  in  1904,  and  to  650  in  1908, 
almost  exactly  one-half  of  them  being  in  Prussia. 

In  1909,  of  the  32  cities  of  the  first  class  (over  100,000 
inhabitants),  24  had  compulsory  commercial  continua- 
tion schools,  and  in  the  others  attendance 
Distribution. 

was  optional.     Of  the   199  cities  ranging 

from  20,000  to  100,000  inhabitants,  only  151  had  com- 
mercial continuation  schools,  108  of  these  having  a  com- 
pulsory attendance  provision.  Prussia  enjoyed  the  un- 
enviable record  of  having  42  of  the  48  cities  without  this 
type  of  commercial  school.  Of  the  229  small  cities 
(10,000  to  20,000  inhabitants)  only  108  had  commercial 
continuation  schools,  in  88  of  which  the  attendance  was 

'  The  author  acknowledges  his  obhgation  for  this  and  the  follow- 
ing statistical  material  to  Schilling,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungs- 
schvlwesen,  Leipzig,  1909,  p.  65  ffg. 


LOWER    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  27 

compulsory,  and  in  20  optional.  Prussia  again  appears 
as  the  most  backward,  for  she  had  94  of  the  cities  where 
none  of  the  schools  were  found.  Thus,  of  all  the  169 
German  cities  of  between  10,000  and  100,000  population 
that  had  no  commercial  continuation  schools  in  1909, 
136  were  within  the  confines  of  Prussia,  a  situation  that 
may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  Prussia  is  the  only 
one  of  the  larger  German  states  where  these  schools  are 
not  required  by  state  law.^  Various  attempts  have  been 
made  there  to  enact  legislation  looking  to  this  end,  but 
the  clerical  influence  has  thus  far  been  able  to  block 
them  all.  The  situation  has  been  deadlocked  by  the 
refusal  of  the  anti-clericals  to  provide  for  religious  teach- 
ing among  the  subjects  of  instruction,  and  the  clericals 
would  not  sanction  the  law  with  this  regulation  omitted. 
It  may  be  added  that  religion  is  one  of  the  regular  stud- 
ies in  Bavaria,  where  the  Catholics  are  in  the  majority. 
Despite  the  fact  that  the  Kultusministerium,  at  Ber- 
lin, the  Prussian  educational    authority,    has    exercised 

such  a  close  control  over  school  affairs  in 

Control. 
the  kmgdom  m  general,  these  commercial 

continuation  schools,  as  well  as  most  of  the  other  activi- 
ties for  business  and  industrial  training,  have  developed 
entirely  outside  its  jurisdiction.     They  fall  within  the 

*  A  recent  regulation  empowering  the  government  to  compel 
every  town  with  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  to  establish  a  com- 
pulsory continuation  school  is  likely  to  improve  thia  record  materially 
within  the  next  few  years. 


28  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

purview  of  the  Ministry  of  Commerce  and  Industry, 
where  there  is  a  special  department,  or  board  {Landes- 
gewerbeamt) ,  in  charge  of  their  administration.  This 
board  consists  of  a  president,  six  regular  members  from 
the  stafif  of  the  department,  and  twelve  specially  ap- 
pointed members,  almost  all  composed  of  directors  and 
principals  from  the  schools  of  the  kingdom  at  large. 
There  is,  furthermore,  a  permanent  council  on  indus- 
trial schools,  consisting  of  (1)  a  general  section,  with 
representatives  of  the  various  government  ministries 
concerned,  of  the  Prussian  Lower  House,  of  the  city 
authorities,  of  commerce  and  industry,  and  of  the  trades ; 
(2)  a  building  trades  section;  and  (3)  an  engineering 
section — these  last  two  being  similarly  representative  in 
character.  However  arbitrary  may  be  the  ultimate  con- 
trol exercised  by  the  paternalistic  Prussian  government, 
an  effort  has  been  made  here  to  pay  some  heed  at  least 
to  the  advice  of  those  most  interested. 

The  explanation  for  the  development  of  this  entire 
system  of  industrial  and  commercial  schools  outside  the 
regular  education  department,  and  their  control  by  the 
department  of  commerce  and  industry,  is  probably  two- 
fold: first,  the  extreme  conservatism  of  the  Kultusminis- 
terium;  and,  second,  the  fact  that  these  schools  were 
largely  founded  by  chambers  of  commerce,  or  other  simi- 
lar bodies  in  direct  relation  with  the  Ministry  of  Com- 
merce and  Industry,  and  subsequently  were  taken  over 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  29 

by  the  municipalities.  The  first  of  these  is  almost  too 
well  known  to  need  further  elaboration  here,  especially 
when  one  recalls  that  it  is  but  little  more  than  ten  years 
since  the  only  fully  accredited  entrance  to  the  university 
was  through  the  old  classical  portal.  OflBcial  recogni- 
tion of  the  parity  between  humanism  and  realism  that 
was  so  hardly  won  at  that  time  had  required  decades  for 
its  realization.  Not  only  has  the  Kultusministerium 
shown  no  inclination  to  establish  any  kind  of  lower  vo- 
cational schools,  but  there  are  no  evidences  of  any  de- 
sire on  its  part  to  introduce  vocational  subjects  into 
the  existing  schools.  The  matter  of  the  Handelsreal- 
schools,  like  those  at  Cologne,  Frankfort,  and  Schone- 
berg,  for  instance,  is  only  an  apparent  exception,  which 
will  be  considered  in  its  proper  connection.  The  course 
of  study  in  the  elementary  schools  not  only  makes  no 
provision  for  commercial  or  other  vocational  subjects, 
but  shows  no  signs  of  modifying  the  old  subjects  to  con- 
form more  nearly  to  vocational  needs.  Of  course  the 
very  presence  of  the  continuation  schools  to-day  tends 
to  eliminate  the  necessity  for  any  such  modification,  but 
there  is  a  feeling  among  the  educational  authorities  that 
the  present  course  of  intellectual  work  in  the  lower 
schools  represents  an  irreducible  minimum,  and  the  in- 
trusion of  work  of  a  vocational  nature  would  displace, 
but  not  replace,  some  of  the  essential  subjects.  Thus,  it 
is  pure  geography,  if  one  may  be  allowed  to  use  such  a 


30  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

term,  not  commercial  geography;  and  arithmetic,  in  its 
more  general,  not  its  special,  commercial  applications, 
that  one  finds  in  the  course  of  study  in  the  Volksschule. 

Again,  as  one  goes  about  through  the  various  towns, 
and  inquires  as  to  the  origin  of  the  commercial  continua- 
tion school,  almost  invariably  does  it  appear  that  the 
chamber  of  commerce,  or  some  other  semi-public  body, 
started  a  commercial  course  which  continued  until  it 
was  absorbed  by  the  establishment  of  a  municipal  con- 
tinuation school.  Sometimes  the  interest  of  the  old 
founding  body  still  manifests  itself  in  the  partial  sup- 
port of  the  new  undertaking,  while  at  other  times  its 
energy  is  diverted  to  the  formation  of  a  higher  com- 
mercial school  for  boys  or  for  girls.  Suffice  it  for  our 
present  purpose  to  note  that  these  schools  were  largely 
founded  by  semi-public  bodies  which  were  in  direct  rela- 
tion with  the  Ministry  of  Commerce  and  Industry. 
This  fact,  together  with  the  above  noted  disinclination 
of  the  Kultusministerium  to  foster  commercial  or  indus- 
trial work  in  its  schools,  rendered  it  quite  natural  for 
the  ultimate  governmental  control  of  these  vocational 
schools  to  be  vested  in  the  Ministry  of  Commerce  and 
Industry,  rather  than  in  the  Ministry  of  Education. 

Subordinate  to  the  board  and  the  permanent  council, 
noted  before,  the  various  administrative  districts  of  the 
twelve  Prussian  provinces  are  combined  in  a  more  or 
less  arbitrary  fashion  into  eighteen  areas,  over  each  of 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  31 

which  is  set  an  administrative  councillor  {Regierungs- 
und  Gewerbeschulrat) .  This  officer  is  a  member  of  the 
administrative  district  council,  with  entire  charge  over 
all  the  commercial  and  industrial  schools  of  his  area. 
He  stands  directly  between  the  ministry  at  Berlin  and 
the  local  director. 

As  has  already  been  indicated  Prussia  has  no  state  pro- 
vision for  compulsory  continuation  schools.  The  existing 
schools  have  all  been  founded  in  accordance  with  an 
imperial  regulation,  by  virtue  of  which  the  community 
is  left  perfectly  free  to  determine  whether  or  not  it  shall 
have  such  a  school.  Once  a  school  is  created  all  the  legal 
machinery  of  the  government  is  behind  it  in  the  enforce- 
ment of  school  attendance  and  other  provisions  needful 
for  its  upkeep.  It  is  then,  in  every  sense  of  the  word, 
a  "compulsory  school."  Practically  the  only  necessary 
step  is  in  securing  enough  local  support  to  commit  the 
community  to  the  financial  burden  by  passing  the  meas- 
ure through  the  municipal  council.  Every  succeeding 
step  follows  naturally  and  in  regular  fashion.  Many  of 
the  difficulties  that  might  otherwise  arise  are  elimi- 
nated through  the  existence  of  the  chamber  of  com- 
merce {Handelskammer). 

"Chamber  of  commerce"  in  Germany  differs  decidedly 
from  the  body  of  the  same  name  in  the  United  States. 
As  the  American  traveler  is  sometimes  painfully  aware, 
everything  in  Germany  is  regulated.    One  mordant,  but 


32  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

unusually  well-informed  critic  of  Teutonic  manners  and 

customs  maintains  that  all  this  is  necessary  for  a  people 

with  the  instincts,  training,  and  experience 

am  er  0     ^^  ^j^^  Germans.  It  certainly  makes  for  or- 
Commerce.  •' 

derliness  and  control,  despite  the  fact  that  in 
the  mass  of  the  people  it  is  almost  exclusively  objective. 
Among  other  things,  merchandising  is  all  carefully 
regulated,  the  entire  conduct  of  business  being  spe- 
cifically outlined  in  the  Imperial  Commercial  Code. 
When  a  person  engages  in  any  mercantile  business, 
and  this  is  all  very  explicitly  defined  by  the  code, 
the  district  court  enrolls  him  in  the  commercial  register 
(Handelsregister).  This  simplifies  the  government's 
task  of  keeping  track  of  him  for  purposes  of  taxation, 
but,  incidentally,  it  gives  him  a  certain  standing  in  the 
community,  and,  among  other  things,  entitles  him  to 
vote  for  the  members  of  the  chamber  of  commerce  of 
his  region  or  district. 

Considering  its  character  this  chamber  of  commerce 
is  relatively  a  large  body,  that  at  Barmen,  for  in- 
stance, a  modern  industrial  city  of  close  to  200,000 
inhabitants,  consisting  of  24  members.  Each  is  chosen 
for  six  years  in  such  fashion  that  the  terms  of 
half  the  members  expire  every  three  years.  The 
German  chamber  of  commerce  is  thus  practically  the 
executive  board  of  the  associated  merchants  of  a  certain 
area.    It  is  not  a  voluntary  association,  for  the  merchant 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  33 

has  no  option  as  to  enrollment  in  the  commercial  regis- 
ter, but  once  there  he  is  likely  to  exercise  his  preroga- 
tives in  influencing  the  choice  of  his  representatives. 
From  this  brief  sketch  the  power  and  influence  of  the 
chamber  of  commerce,  in  formulating  and  moulding 
public  sentiment,  will  be  readily  apparent,  and  one  can 
easily  understand  how  these  bodies  have  been  so  effec- 
tive in  founding  schools  of  their  own,  and  when  the 
worth  of  such  schools  has  been  demonstrated,  have  suc- 
ceeded so  generally  in  inducing  the  communities  to  take 
over  their  support.  Civic  pride,  or  perhaps  civic  rivalry, 
is  an  important  factor  that  has  considerably  simplified 
this  task.  One  town  establishes  a  system  of  compulsory 
continuation  schools.  Its  neighbors,  not  to  be  outdone, 
follow  suit,  and  sometimes  later  awake  to  the  fact  that 
they  have  saddled  themselves  with  a  burden  that  is  not 
altogether  acceptable  to  a  considerable  number  of  the 
citizens.  At  least,  in  some  of  the  towns  that  I  visited, 
this  was  said  to  be  the  case. 

Once  the  municipal  assembly  has  decided  to  estab- 
lish a  commercial  continuation  school,  the  next  step  is 
the  appointment  of  a  Kuratorium,  or  board 

of  government.    While  there  is  no  uniform     °^  ^^" 

emment. 

size  for  this  board,  its  membership  usually 
ranges  in  number  between  twelve  and  eighteen,  and  must 
contain  representatives  of  at  least  the  town  executive,  the 
Minister  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  the  municipal  coun- 


34  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

oil,  and  the  chamber  of  commerce.  The  mayor,  or  one 
of  his  fellow  burgomasters,  as  president  represents  the 
first  of  these;  the  administrative  district  councillor  is 
appointed  by  the  Minister  to  represent  the  central  gov- 
ernment; the  municipal  council  chooses  some  of  its  own 
members  to  represent  the  council;  and  the  chamber  of 
commerce  in  like  fashion  selects  its  representatives. 
Minor  variations  will  be  found  in  the  different  locali- 
ties. In  Elberfeld,  for  example,  four  of  the  six  munici- 
pal councillors  must  be  merchants.  Here  also  two  mem- 
bers of  the  board  of  government  are  designated  by  the 
merchants'  court  [Kaufmannsgericht) ,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  mayor.  Sometimes  the  municipal  coun- 
cil appoints  merchants  quite  apart  from  any  of  the 
bodies  noted  above.  In  Barmen,  the  clerks'  association 
names  two  members  of  the  board.  Women,  too,  are  at 
times  found  on  these  governing  bodies.  In  Diisseldorf 
there  are  three,  but  they  serve  merely  in  an  advisory 
and  consultative  capacity,  having  no  power  to  vote.  It 
may  be  unnecessary  to  add  that  only  communities  which 
have  established  girls'  continuation  schools  have  women 
board  members,  and  they  are  found  in  only  a  relatively 
small  number  of  these  cities.  Thus  every  effort  is  made 
to  have  all  the  various  interests  concerned  represented 
on  these  boards  of  government.  Perhaps  more  effort 
might  be  put  forth  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the 
ordinary  educational  officials,  for  although  a  representa- 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  35 

tive  of  the  Kultusministerium  is  found  on  the  central 
council,  it  is  rather  rare  to  find  a  corresponding  mem- 
ber on  the  local  board  of  government.  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  if  this  would  have  any  effect  on  modifying  the 
work  of  the  Volksschule,  for  this  latter  is  largely  regu- 
lated from  Berlin,  and  the  central  authorities  there  seem 
rather  satisfied  that  they  have  worked  out  a  funda- 
mental course  of  study  of  the  essentials  that  is  best 
adapted  for  the  people's  needs. 

Aside  from  regulating  the  budget  of  the  schools,  se- 
curing the  necessary  appropriation  from  the  municipal 

council  for  their  support,  and  administer- 

Director. 
ing  their  financial  affairs  in  general,  the 

chief  function  of  this  board  of  government  consists  in 
securing  a  competent  director.  In  places  where  the 
chamber  of  commerce  has  previously  maintained  a  sys- 
tem of  voluntary  commercial  schools,  this  has  been 
relatively  a  simple  matter,  for  the  director  has  usually 
been  taken  over  with  the  schools.  So  far  as  my  ex- 
perience goes,  these  directors  are  a  thoroughly  compe- 
tent body  of  men,  well  qualified  for  the  task  in  hand. 
All  of  them  have  been  teachers  in  one  capacity  or  an- 
other, and  most  of  them  have  had  practical  experience 
in  the  world  of  business. 

In  the  administration  of  school  affairs,  this  director 
is  a  very  powerful  person.    To  be  sure,  since  the  min- 


36  rOMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

isterial  order  of  July,  1911,  he  has  had  little  to  do  with 

determining  the  subjects  of  study  or  the  time  allotment, 

yet  otherwise  he  is  a  real  educational  ex- 
Powers  and 

pert  in  charge  of  the  work.  He  is  practically 

responsible  for  determining  the  qualifica- 
tions of  his  teaching  staff,  and  he  is  left  almost  absolutely 
free  in  the  selection  of  his  force.  Wherever  the  municipal 
continuation  schools  are  found,  the  merchants  are  com- 
pelled to  send  all  their  employees  who  are  between  the 
ages  recognized  for  school  attendance,  and  the  director 
is  given  large  powers  in  enforcing  this  attendance  regu- 
lation. He  may  even  fix  a  fine,  up  to  twenty  marks, 
upon  employers  who  do  not  send  their  employees  to 
school  at  the  appointed  time,  or  who  do  anything  to 
hinder  them  from  going.  Parents  or  guardians  may  be 
similarly  punished  for  corresponding  derelictions.  Of 
course,  the  director  is  reasonably  lenient,  and  has  re- 
course to  the  fine  only  as  a  last  resort,  but  it  is  a  very 
effective  club  to  hold  over  the  heads  of  recalcitrant 
employers  or  parents.  No  complicated  court  proceed- 
ings are  necessary.  All  he  has  to  do  is  to  fill  out  a 
blank  and  send  it  to  the  police  authorities.  They  de- 
spatch an  ofiicer  to  collect  the  fine,  and  the  matter  is 
very  simply  settled.  The  employer  may  refuse  to  pay, 
and  may  elect  to  take  the  case  into  court,  but  it  is  al- 
ways cheaper  and  simpler  for  him  to  settle  on  the  spot 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  37 

with  the  policeman.    As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  fines 
are  very  rarely  imposed. 

As  has  already  been  implied,  responsibility  for  the 
support  of  the  schools  devolves  upon  the  community, 
the  funds  for  this  purpose  coming  from 
the  municipal  treasury.  According  to  the 
table  (page  25)  the  major  part  of  the  ex- 
pense for  the  whole  of  Prussia  is  borne  by  the  tuition 
fees,  but  in  the  Rhine  country,  where  the  schools  as  a 
whole  are  probably  best  developed,  the  local  tax  is  the 
largest  single  factor.  In  Cologne  the  budget  for  the 
school  year  ending  at  Easter,  1913,  was  194,145  marks. 
Of  this  the  city  appropriated  100,000  marks;  85,000 
marks  came  in  through  tuition  fees;  and  approximately 
9,000  marks  were  provided  by  the  Prussian  government. 
In  Elberfeld,  the  city  and  the  chamber  of  conmierce 
share  the  net  expense  after  deducting  the  income  from 
tuition  fees  and  state  contribution.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  latter  here  amounts  to  about  one-third  of  the 
whole.  In  some  cities  the  state  pays  nothing  at  all,  but 
the  chamber  of  commerce  contributes  toward  the  sup- 
port. In  the  eastern  part  of  the  kingdom  the  state's 
share  is  relatively  large.  Reference  to  the  table  (page 
25)  again  will  show  that  of  all  four  sources  of  support 
the  local  tax  is  increasing  most  rapidly.  Furthermore, 
the  expenses  for  buildings,  including  heating,  lighting, 


38  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY 

aiul  cleaning  (none  of  which  appear  in  the  table  re- 
ferred to)  must  all  be  borne  by  the  communities,  and 
will  therefore  materially  increase  the  share  contributed 
by  them.  Tuition  fees  vary  from  place  to  place,  but 
range  usually  from  twenty  to  thirty  marks  per  year. 
There  are  evidences  of  a  tendency  to  fix  them  generally 
at  the  latter  figure.  Payment  of  school  fees  is  never 
exacted  from  pupils  subject  to  the  requirements  of  the 
compulsory  attendance  law.  This  burden  must  always 
be  borne  by  the  employer.  In  general,  the  regulations 
provide  that  the  employer  with  whom  the  boy  is  work- 
ing on  June  15th  and  on  December  15th  is  responsible 
for  the  fees  for  the  current  half  year.  In  case  the  boy 
is  unemployed  at  either  of  these  times,  the  next  em- 
ployer becomes  liable.  Considering  the  fact  that  none 
of  these  young  apprentices  is  receiving,  at  least  during 
his  first  year,  more  than  ten  marks  per  month  in  wages 
(and  in  some  cases  nothing  at  all),  the  imposition  of 
these  fees  on  the  employer  can  hardly  be  considered 
much  of  a  burden.  Pupils  who  attend  these  schools  of 
their  own  free  will  have  to  pay  their  own  fees.  On  the 
basis  of  43  marks  average  expenditure  per  pupil,  aside 
from  housing  charges,  even  the  highest  fees  will  cover 
only  about  two-thirds  of  the  cost. 

On  the  whole  in  Prussia,  continuation  school  build- 
ings and  equipment  are  relatively  very  mediocre,  es- 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  39 

pecially,  strange  to  say,  in  the  larger  communities.  In 
the  smaller  places,  they  compare  favorably  with  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  for  there  they  are  housed     guiidines 

in  the  same  buildings,  either  having  the  and 

1      •  r  J.  f;    J-  Equipment, 

exclusive  use  of  vacant  rooms  or  nndmg 

accommodation  in  the  regular  rooms  at  unoccupied 
portions  of  the  day,  especially  during  the  late  after- 
noon. This  offers  a  good  illustration  of  the  conserva- 
tion of  resource  and  the  utilization  of  dormant  equip- 
ment. In  the  larger  towns,  many  of  the  continuation 
schools  have  buildings  of  their  own,  but  these  are  usually 
discarded  elementary  school  buildings  or  other  struc- 
tures made  over  with  only  moderate  success  for  school 
purposes.  Directors  of  continuation  schools  are  fre- 
quently hard  pressed  to  provide  suitable  accommoda- 
tion for  their  classes.  It  is  a  rare  exception  to  find  as 
at  Elberfeld  a  fine  modern  building,  simply  yet  taste- 
fully constructed,  and  as  well  equipped  for  the  purpose 
which  it  has  to  serve  as  any  school  in  Germany.  In 
South  Germany,  conditions  on  the  whole  are  decidedly 
superior  to  those  prevailing  in  Prussia.  It  is  only  fair 
to  add  that  the  continuation  school  idea  developed  con- 
siderably earlier  in  the  south  than  in  the  north. 

One  is  impressed  by  the  general  absence  of  decoration 
in  the  Prussian  continuation  school,  even  the  likeness  of 
the  Emperor  so  omnipresent  in  other  types  of  schools 
is  usually  missing.    Directors  explain  this  on  the  ground 


40  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

that  the  continuation  school  course  is  entirely  lacking 
in  history,  the  subject  that  is  of  prime  importance  in 
developing  ideas  of  patriotism,  an  attitude  that  sub- 
stantiates a  point  of  view  frequently  advanced  with  ref- 
erence to  German  education,  namely  that  there  is  a  par- 
ticular way  of  doing  everything,  and  everything  must 
be  done  in  accordance  with  that  way.  Conditions  out- 
side Prussia  are  not  quite  so  rigid. 

It  has  not  been  altogether  easy  to  find  competent 
teachers  for  these  commercial  continuation  schools,  es- 
pecially  since  the  opportunities   for  suit- 

Tcflch  firs 

able  training  have  been  relatively  few,  and 
graduates  of  the  training  courses  at  the  colleges  of  com- 
merce are  frequently  too  ambitious  to  accept  ordinary 
positions  in  these  lower  schools.  Directors  had  the  al- 
ternative of  appointing  persons  from  the  commercial 
world  who  were  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  technique 
of  business,  but  with  no  proved  skill  in  teaching  and 
probably  with  little  aptitude  for  the  work,  or  of  select- 
ing teachers  from  the  Volksschulen  whose  skill  as  in- 
structors had  already  been  established,  but  who  pos- 
sessed only  the  layman's  knowledge,  or  rather  ignor- 
ance, of  the  minutia)  of  commerce.  In  this  embarrassing 
situation  not  a  few  impaled  themselves  upon  the  first 
horn  of  the  dilemma.  They  soon  realized  their  difii- 
culties,  for  barring  the  chance  cases  of  natural  aptitude 
for  teaching  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  ex-business  men, 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  41 

the  classes  began  to  go  to  pieces.  Recognizing  that  the 
other  horn  of  the  dilemma  would  bring  a  result  differ- 
ing only  in  degree  from  that  already  encountered,  but 
appreciating  further  that  proved  teaching  ability  of- 
fered a  safer  basis  to  build  upon  than  mere  business 
knowledge,  the  central  government  and  even  some  of 
the  cities  established  series  of  evening  extension  courses 
in  order  to  train  the  Volksschule  teachers  for  commer- 
cial school  work.  Every  encouragement  is  given  them 
to  study  at  the  colleges  of  commerce  as  well,  and  not 
infrequently  one  finds  teachers  off  on  leave  of  absence 
for  this  purpose.  Teachers  fall  into  two  general  classes: 
regular  teachers  {Hauptamtliche  Lehrer),  and  special 
teachers  {Nebenamtliche  Lehrer).  The  former  spend 
all  their  time  in  these  commercial  schools,  while  the 
latter  fill  in  here  in  connection  with  other  work,  for  the 
most  part  being  Volksschule  teachers  who  come  in  for  a 
few  hours  per  week.  It  is  apparently  not  at  all  difficult 
to  attract  teachers  away  from  the  Volksschulen,  for  the 
salaries  in  the  commercial  schools  will  range  five  or  six 
hundred  marks  per  year  higher  than  in  the  ordinary 
elementary  schools. 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  very  close  agreement 
as  to  the  minimum  training  that  is  desirable.  Some 
maintain  that  a  few  months  in  a  business  house  at  the 
close  of  the  college  of  commerce  course  will  give  the 
necessary  practical  basis.     The  theoretical  training  at 


42  COMMEHCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

the  college  will  show  the  student  what  to  look  for  in 
the  business  world,  and  a  relatively  short  time  there 
will  suffice  to  give  him  the  necessary  grasp  on  the  prac- 
tical details.  At  least  this  ought  to  count  for  some- 
thing in  minimizing  the  force  of  the  criticism  of  those 
who  look  upon  the  college  course  as  emphasizing  theory 
at  the  expense  of  practice.  It  would  appear  highly  de- 
sirable to  have  no  teachers  who  have  not  spent  some 
time  at  a  college  of  commerce,  and  still  more  desirable 
to  have  none  without  business  experience  in  addition. 
For  most  places,  however,  these  must  be  merely  ideals 
for  the  present.  Conditions  are  nevertheless  moving  in 
this  direction.  In  Cologne,  for  instance,  all  regular 
teachers  appointed  in  the  future  must  have  attended  a 
college  of  commerce;  and  at  Elberfeld  all  teachers  in 
whatever  department  must  have  been  in  business  for 
at  least  one  year. 

In  a  country  like  Germany,  where  everything  is  regu- 
lated and  administered  with  the  utmost  precision,  the 

recruitment  of  pupils  is  a  relatively  simple 
Pupils. 

matter.     The  Imperial  Commercial  Code 

confers  upon  the  community  full  powers  to  make  its 

own  regulations  for  securing  attendance  at  continuation 

schools  in  accordance  with  §120  of  the  Imperial  Trade 

Regulations.     The  latest  revision  of  these  regulations, 

December  27,  1911,  marks  a  decided  advance  for  the 

continuation  school,  for  the  community  is  granted  the 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  43 

right  to  impose  compulsory  attendance  at  such  a  school 
upon  all  industrial  workers  between  fourteen  and  eigh- 
teen years  of  age,  boys  and  girls  alike,  whereas  the 
previous  regulations  affected  all  boys  between  these 
ages,  but  included  only  those  girls  who  were  occupied 
in  commercial  work  as  assistants  or  apprentices.  Schools 
in  operation  to-day  were  largely  founded  under  the  con- 
ditions prevailing  anterior  to  December,  1911.  Wher- 
ever the  municipal  continuation  school  is  found,  prac- 
tically everybody  between  fourteen  and  eighteen  years 
who  is  engaged  in  any  kind  of  commercial  work,  un- 
less he  has  been  graduated  from  certain  courses  in  what 
we  should  call  a  secondary  school,  or  unless  he  is  at- 
tending some  other  school  which  is  recognized  as  fulfill- 
ing the  same  purpose  as  the  continuation  school,  is  sub- 
ject to  the  operation  of  this  law.  Some  communities  in- 
sist inexorably  upon  attendance  until  the  close  of  the 
school  half  year  in  which  the  pupil  attains  his  seven- 
teenth birthday,  while  some  allow  pupils  who  complete 
the  elementary  school  course  before  fourteen  and  enter 
the  continuation  school  at  that  time  to  leave  the  latter 
school  that  much  earlier.  On  the  other  hand,  in  case 
the  course  is  not  completed  satisfactorily,  the  compul- 
sory attendance  period  may  be  extended  in  individual 
instances  until  the  eighteenth  birthday.  The  universal 
rule  seems  to  make  attendance  depend  upon  location  of 
work.     In  other  words,   a  boy  between   fourteen   and 


44  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

seventeen  miiy  live  in  a  city  which  maintains  a  com- 
pulsory continuation  school,  and  secure  work  in  an  ad- 
joining town  tliat  has  no  such  school.  He  is  not  subject 
to  the  operation  of  the  law,  whereas  another  boy  who 
lives  in  the  above  mentioned  town  but  who  comes  into 
the  city  to  work  becomes  amenable  to  the  law.  Admin- 
istration of  the  law  is  relatively  simple  from  the  fact 
that  employers  are  held  responsible  for  notifying  the 
authorities  of  all  persons  in  their  employ  that  fall  with- 
in its  provisions. 

It  may  be  well  to  observe  here  that  the  conditions  of 

employment   in   Germany   are    fundamentally   different 

from  anything  we  have  in  America  or  from 

Conditions  of  .^^ything  with  which  most  of  us  are  ac- 
Employment.        '^ 

quainted.      True,    the    old    apprenticeship 

system  has  passed  away,  but  much  of  its  form  still  re- 
mains. The  great  majority  of  the  boys  take  up  some 
trade  or  engage  in  a  regularly  recognized  occupation 
that  demands  a  period  of  learning.  Unfortunate  indeed 
is  the  so-called  unskilled  laborer  {Ungelehrnte  Arbeiter). 
Every  effort  is  made  to  turn  young  men  away  from  un- 
skilled occupations,  which,  although  they  may  attract 
by  the  prospect  of  more  immediate  gain,  must  necessar- 
ily result  in  a  treadmill  sort  of  existence.  The  city  of 
Cologne,  for  example,  has  published  two  little  booklets, 
one  for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls,  in  which  this  ques- 
tion is  discussed  fully  and  frankly.     These  pamphlets 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  45 

furthermore  state  very  briefly  the  physical  qualifications 
required  in  the  various  ordinary  vocations,  showing  what 
kinds  of  work  are  impracticable  for  those  handicapped 
by  certain  physical  weaknesses,  list  the  occupations 
open  to  the  deaf  and  the  blind,  and  finally  describe  the 
work  conditions  of  some  thirty  or  forty  different  occu- 
pations that  are  available  for  the  youth  of  Cologne. 
Not  only  does  the  last  contain  specific  information  as 
to  the  length  of  the  apprenticeship  period  (usually  three 
years),  wages  during  this  time,  and  ultimate  earning 
prospects  of  the  business,  but  also  in  most  cases  the 
amount  of  capital  required  to  set  up  an  independent 
business. 

A   pupil's   first  task   on   completing  the   elementary 
school  course  at  Easter  after  his  fourteenth  birthday  is 
to  find  a  job,  at  least  if  he  has  not  one 
already  waiting  for  him.    In  some  places,      ^%j  °''  * 
the  columns  of  the  daily  paper  provide  the 
only  source  of  information;  sometimes  the  employers 
seek  out  the  elementary  school  principals;   sometimes 
the  chamber  of  commerce  maintains  a  sort  of  intelli- 
gence office  for  mercantile  pursuits;  and  in  some  few 
instances  the  city  authorities  conduct  a  vocational  bu- 
reau.    Cologne   has   a   well    organized   service   of   this 
last  nature  that   admirably   supplements   the   booklets 
noted  above.     The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  registry 
leaflet: 


46 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 


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48  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

The  question  with  reference  to  board  and  lodging  with 
the  employer  is  merely  a  survival  of  the  old  apprentice- 
ship system  that  is  seldom  significant  to-day.  It  might 
seem  as  though  there  would  be  only  one  answer  in  re- 
sponse to  the  question  about  wages.  Its  spirit  would 
perhaps  better  be  rendered:  "Does  the  parent  insist 
upon  compensation?"  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  places 
ultimately  most  desirable  often  bring  no  return  at  all 
during  the  learning  period.  One  might  almost  say  that 
the  wages  during  apprenticeship  vary  inversely  as  the 
desirability  of  the  position.  Unskilled  labor  pays  the 
highest  immediate  returns,  while  appointments  in  bank- 
ing houses  (which,  by  the  way,  are  rarely  if  ever  open 
to  graduates  of  the  elementary  schools)  carry  no  wage 
at  all.  Bonuses  are  frequently  given  at  Christmas  and 
at  the  end  of  the  apprentice  period  that  serve  sub- 
stantially the  same  end.  In  some  of  the  more  desirable 
industrial  positions,  like  those  with  optical  instrument 
manufacturers,  the  boy  is  even  required  to  pay  a  con- 
siderable amount  for  his  instruction  and  the  privilege 
of  learning  the  trade.  One  of  the  most  significant  por- 
tions of  this  blank  is  that  filled  in  by  the  school  phy- 
sician. He  can  supplement  the  paragraphs  in  the  mu- 
nicipal booklet  with  reference  to  physical  qualifications 
for  various  occupations,  and  can  very  often  prevent  a 
pupil  from  making  a  serious  and  perhaps  an  irrevocable 
error  in  the  choice  of  his  life  work. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  49 

Generalizations  as  to  the  nature  of  the  occupations 
engaged  in  by  these  continuation  school  pupils  are  par- 
ticularly difficult  on  account  of  the  variety 

of    classification    used    in    school    reports.      ""Prions 

^  of  the  Pupils. 

Some    differentiate    merely    the   wholesale 

trades,  while  others  enumerate  as  many  as  two  score 
different  lines  of  work  with  the  number  of  pupils  in 
each.  It  is  almost  banal  to  observe  that  the  work  ac- 
cords with  the  prevailing  industrial  character  of  the 
town.  In  a  big  commercial  center  like  Hamburg,  the 
majority  of  the  three  thousand  odd  pupils  in  the  com- 
mercial continuation  schools  are  engaged  in  export  and 
import  trade  alone,  while  if  allied  businesses  like  insur- 
ance, shipping,  and  commission  houses  are  also  included, 
more  than  three-quarters  of  the  total  number  will  be 
covered.  In  a  manufacturing  center  like  Barmen,  the 
major  part  of  these  commercial  pupils  are  found  in  the 
offices  of  the  industrial  concerns.  In  other  centers  where 
there  are  both  boys'  and  girls'  schools,  the  character  of 
the  work  of  the  two  sexes  is  diametrically  opposed.  The 
boys  are  chiefly  found  in  the  offices  and  in  the  whole- 
sale houses,  while  the  girls  are  largely  engaged  in  retail 
trade  over  the  counter.  The  proportion  of  girls  in  this 
kind  of  work  as  opposed  to  office  clerical  work  will 
sometimes  run  as  high  as  fifteen  or  sixteen  to  one. 

Changes  of  occupation  are  relatively  rare  in  Germany. 
No  little  care  is  taken  to  start  one  aright,  but  once 


50  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

launched  along  a  certain  line,  it  is  next  to  impossible 

to  turn  aside.     The  boy  starts  in  to  learn  a  business, 

whether   it    be    industrial    or   commercial, 

ApprenUce     ,^^^^  almost  invariably  contracts  with  his 
Period.  -^ 

employer  for  the  whole  term  of  his  appren- 
ticeship,^ normally  three  years.  The  employer  takes  the 
boy  on  one  or  three  months'  trial,  the  period  being  spe- 
cifically stated  in  the  contract  with  the  stipulation  that 
the  youngster  may  be  dismissed  at  the  end  of  the  pro- 
bationary period  if  he  is  unsatisfactory,  or  is  not  suited 
to  the  business.  Ten  marks  per  month  are  the  ordinary 
wage  for  the  first  year,  twenty  marks  the  second  year, 
and  thirty  marks  the  third  year.  The  insistence  upon 
this  three  year  term  of  apprenticeship  at  merely  nom- 
inal wages  is  only  another  instance  of  the  persistence 
of  tradition,  for  it  is  rather  difiicult  to  see  why  all  occu- 
pations, especially  certain  kinds  of  commercial  work, 
should  require  three  years  to  learn.  Occasionally  one 
comes  across  a  business  man  who  is  frank  enough  to 
acknowledge  that  after  all  this  is  largely  a  matter  of 
custom,  and  a  scheme  for  getting  a  certain  amount  of 
work  done  for  practically  nothing.  A  boy  enters  the 
office  of  an  industrial  worker,  for  instance.  He  is  classed 
as  a  commercial  apprentice,  for  eventually  he  will  be 
handling  the  books  of  the  firm  or  will  be  engaged  in 
the  commercial  side  of  the  business.  The  first  year  he 
1  See  Appendix  A  for  copy  of  indenture. 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  51 

attends  to  the  mail,  copies  letters,  carries  parcels  to  the 
post  office,  and  acts  as  general  errand  boy.  The  second 
year  he  may  have  one  simple  book  to  look  after,  with 
possibly  one  or  two  more  in  the  case  of  unusually  bright 
boys.  In  the  third  year  his  responsibility  is  somewhat 
increased.  The  year  after,  whether  the  boy  remains 
with  the  same  firm  or  not,  he  becomes  a  full-fledged  as- 
sistant or  clerk.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  boy 
learns  little  or  nothing  during  his  years  of  apprentice- 
ship, but  they  must  be  gone  through  with,  or  he  cannot 
secure  a  position  later.  This  provision  of  itself  is  im- 
mensely significant  in  operating  against  any  subsequent 
radical  change  in  the  character  of  one's  occupation. 
Not  only  does  this  mean  once  an  industrial  worker,  al- 
ways an  industrial  worker,  and  once  a  clerk,  always  a 
clerk,  but  one  is  practically  forced  to  continue  in  the 
same  branch  of  industrial  work,  and  in  the  same  branch 
of  commercial  work  all  one's  life.  It  is  readily  apparent, 
then,  how  serious  the  wise  choice  of  an  occupation  in 
Germany  becomes — a  choice  which  must  definitely  be 
made  at  fourteen  years  of  age.  Substantially  the  only 
relief  from  this  condition  of  affairs  is  offered  by  the 
lower  ranks  of  the  government  service. 

Many  a  boy  shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  his  period 
of  apprenticeship,  goes  off  forthwith  to  serve  his  time  in 
the  army,  with  the  idea  of  getting  that  task  behind  him 
so  as  not  to  interfere  with  his  work  period.     For  the 


52  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

next  two  or  three  years  the  young  man  belongs  body  and 
mind  to  the  nation.  Although  employers  often  give  pref- 
erence to  their  former  employees  at  the  expiration  of 
the  term  of  military  service,  they  are  under  no  obliga- 
tion to  do  so,  and  the  young  man  is  compelled  to  find  a 
new  situation.  Then  it  is  that  he  must  produce  the 
papers  showing  completion  of  his  apprentice  period. 
The  ordinary  ranks  of  the  government  service,  with  its 
thousands  of  positions  in  the  state-owned  railway  sys- 
tem, and  its  numberless  other  minor  appointments,  some- 
times afford  opportunity  for  a  new  choice  of  life  work. 
Continuation  school  pupils  are  so  hedged  about  by 
regulations  that  they  can  hardly  fail  to  attend  the  school 

regularly  and  promptly.  Parents  or  guard- 
Attendance. 

ians  are  responsible  for  their  children  or 

charges  on  the  one  hand,  employers  are  responsible  for 
their  employees  on  the  other,  while  between  the  two 
stand  the  school  authorities  ready  to  prod  either  or  both 
of  these  influences  into  vigorous  action.  There  is  thus 
not  much  chance  of  escape  for  the  pupil.  Individual 
illness,  or  death  in  the  family  is  about  the  only  valid 
excuse  for  absence,  and  woe  unto  the  employer  who 
thinks  his  own  work  is  more  important  than  the  school 
attendance  of  his  employees!  Transgressions  are  rela- 
tively rare,  such  is  the  German's  wholesome  regard  for 
the  statutes.  One  city,  with  over  five  hundred  pupils 
in   its   commercial    continuation   schools,   in   1911-1912 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  53 

chronicled  only  four  instances  when  it  was  necessary  for 
the  police  to  punish  employers  for  hindering  employees 
from  school  attendance.  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon 
to  find  whole  city  systems  where  the  unexcused,  illegal 
absence  runs  from  one-half  to  one  per  cent.  On  the 
whole,  absences  in  Prussia  may  be  reckoned  at  about 
four  per  cent.,  a  very  satisfactory  showing.  The  com- 
munities that  have  no  compulsory  regulations,  as  might 
be  expected,  do  not  reach  the  same  high  standard  in 
punctuality  and  regularity  of  attendance.  This  offers 
a  good  argument  for  communities  that  are  willing  to 
support  continuation  schools  to  make  attendance  com- 
pulsory, an  argument  that  the  central  authorities  lose 
no  opportunity  in  advancing. 

Discipline  in  the  schools  is  universally  excellent.     In 
upwards  of  one  hundred  classes  that  I  have  visited  in 

various  parts  of  the  country,  I  have  yet  ^,    .  , 

^  •^'  -^        Discipline  and 

to  find  a  single  instance  of  classroom  dis-  its  Enforce- 
order.  I  presume  the  German  boy  even  of  ™ent. 
this  age  occasionally  transgresses  as  does  his  counter- 
part in  other  portions  of  the  world,  but  such  occasions 
are  certainly  much  rarer  than  they  are  in  our  schools. 
Various  regulations  in  the  school  by-laws  indicate  that 
such  possible  breaches  have  certainly  been  anticipated 
and  provided  for  by  the  school  authorities.  Circum- 
spect behavior  is  enjoined  on  the  way  to  and  from 
school,  and  smoking  at  these  times  is  specifically  for- 


51  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

bidden.  "School  arrest"  is  a  term  foreign  to  the  vocabu- 
lary of  the  American  teacher.  It  signifies  detention  in 
school  behind  locked  doors.  In  extreme  cases  where 
this  does  not  bring  the  desired  results,  the  director  may 
even  order  police  arrest.  Theoretically  this  may  mean 
two  or  three  days  confinement  in  the  police  station,  but 
in  practice  the  parent  pays  a  fine  instead,  and  the  boy 
is  released.  Occasionally  one  finds  school  reports  that 
chronicle  with  infinite  detail  all  such  serious  breaches 
of  discipline. 

Two  hundred  and  forty  hours  of  attendance  consti- 
tute  a  year's   school  work.     This   extends   over   forty 
weeks  of  six  hours  each.     In  some  towns 

ear  an       ^j^^^  -^  (^jyj(jg(j   wherever  possible,  between 
Sessions.  '  ^  ' 

two  days  with  four  hours  one  morning  and 

two  hours  in  the  afternoon  of  another  day.  Some  di- 
rectors prefer  two  sessions  of  three  hours  each,  and  some 
others  arrange  their  programs  for  three  sessions  of  two 
hours.  The  longer"  day  that  is  possible  in  summer  (from 
seven  o'clock  in  the  morning)  offers  opportunity  for 
still  another  variation — three  sessions  in  summer,  and 
two  in  winter.  There  are  certain  advantages  to  be 
claimed  for  either  the  double  or  the  triple  session. 
There  is  always  a  certain  amount  of  waste  in  beginning 
and  closing  the  session  which  would  seem  to  throw  a 
certain  advantage  in  favor  of  the  two  session  plan,  aside 
entirely  from  the  economy  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  in 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  55 

going  to  and  from  school,  and  the  probable  decrease  in 
the  number  of  latenesses.  On  the  other  hand,  the  three 
session  scheme  has  the  advantage  of  frequency  and  regu- 
larity, and  minimizes  the  loss  of  inertia  on  account  of 
the  shorter  interval  between  sessions.  The  solution  of 
this  question  offers  a  restricted,  though  profitable  field 
for  empirical  investigation,  which  one  would  expect  the 
Germans  to  attack  with  avidity.  At  the  present,  how- 
ever, it  is  impossible  even  to  determine  the  prevailing 
norm  without  a  more  extended  analysis  than  the  avail- 
able material  will  afford.  With  the  sessions  coming  on 
different  days,  and  dividing  the  week  as  symmetrically 
as  possible,  one  finds  combinations  like  the  following: 
8-12  a.  m.  and  2-4  p.  m.;  7-10  a.  m.  and  2-5  p.  m.;  10-1 
and  2-5;  10-1  or  2-5  (two  days  per  week);  7-9  a.  m., 
or  8-10  a.  m.,  or  3-5  p.  m.  (three  days  per  week).  When 
the  schools  were  first  organized,  there  was  a  deliberate 
attempt  to  hold  the  sessions  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
the  working  day;  that  is,  after  eight  o'clock  at  night,  or 
on  Sunday,  always  in  the  latter  case,  however,  so  timed 
as  to  avoid  the  hour  of  the  principal  church  service  of 
the  day.  It  soon  became  evident  that  as  thus  held  they 
were  encroaching  upon  the  already  meager  recreation 
period  of  the  young  laboring  classes,  and  furthermore 
the  best  results  were  not  obtainable  from  the  work  be- 
cause the  evening  classes  were  held  at  the  close  of  a 


56  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

hard  day's  labor  when  the  physical  and  mental  vitality 
was  at  relatively  low  ebb.  A  reform  looking  toward 
the  correction  of  these  abuses  was  therefore  instituted. 
As  far  as  possible  all  classes  are  to  be  held  upon  week 
days  between  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  eight 
o'clock  in  the  evening,  school  time  thus  counting  as  a 
part  of  the  regular  working  day.  While  the  ideal  has 
not  yet  been  reached,  Sunday  classes  and  evening  work 
have  been  very  largely  eliminated  from  the  commercial 
continuation  schools.  According  to  the  latest  official  re- 
port,^ in  all  the  compulsory  commercial  continuation 
schools  in  Prussia  in  1910,  only  twelve  per  cent,  of  the 
instruction  was  given  after  eight  o'clock  at  night,  and 
less  than  one  per  cent,  on  Sundays,  the  remainder  fall- 
ing between  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  eight 
o'clock  in  the  evening.  The  western  provinces  of  the 
kingdom  present  more  than  twice  as  favorable  a  show- 
ing in  this  respect  as  do  the  eastern  provinces.  The 
whole  situation  shows  a  considerable  amelioration  over 
the  previous  returns.  Sunday  classes  will  probably 
never  be  entirely  eliminated,  but  the  authorities  are 
making  every  effort  to  discourage  all  after  eight  o'clock 
at  night,  unless  there  are  more  than  six  hours  per  week 
in  the  course. 

1  Verwaltungsbericht  des  koniglich  preussischen  Landesgewerbeamts, 
1912,  p.  75. 


I 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  57 

As  the  reports  so  often  emphasize,  the  commercial 
continuation  school  is  a  "special  school"  {Fachschule)} 
Incidentally,  it  must  make  up  the  deficien- 
cies in  the  pupil's  intellectual  training  that 
properly  fall  to  the  province  of  the  elementary  school, 
but  primarily  its  function  is  to  provide  him  with  a 
special  scientific  equipment  that  shall  open  up  the  whole 
field  of  his  future  commercial  life,  that  shall  give  him 
the  theoretical  background  to  supplement  the  practi- 
cal experiences  of  every  day  business.  The  official  regu- 
lations issued  by  the  central  authority  put  this  somewhat 
more  simply  when  they  say:^  ''The  problem  of  the  com- 
pulsory continuation  school  is  to  further  the  vocational 
training  of  young  people  between  fourteen  and  eighteen 
years  of  age,  and  to  cooperate  in  developing  them  into 
efficient  citizens  and  individuals." 

1  One  might  perhaps  better  render  this  for  the  American  reader 
by  the  more  comprehensive  "vocational  school".  The  German 
Fachschule  is  appUed  to  vocational  school,  industrial  school,  trade 
school,  technical  school,  university,  etc.;  in  other  words  to  any 
school  that  prepares  for  a  special  work.  The  EngUsh  language 
unfortunately  lacks  any  such  general  term,  though  "vocational" 
would  seem  to  come  nearest  to  it. 

*  Verwaltungsbericht  des  koniglich  preussischen  Landesgewerbeamts, 
1912,  p.  138. 


CHAPTER   III 

LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS    (2) 
PROGRAM    OF   STUDIES 

Previous  to  Easter,   1912,  the  various  programs  of 

study  represented  a  considerable  diversity  of  subjects 

of  instruction.     Since  that  date,  the  new 

ograms  o      regulations  of  the  Ministry  of  Commerce 
Studies.  *=  "^ 

and  Industry  have  imposed  a  nearly  uni- 
form program  upon  all,  although  the  new  scheme  will 
not  be  entirely  in  force  until  the  spring  of  1915.  In 
accordance  with  this,  the  six  periods  of  the  preparatory 
division  are  arranged  as  follows: 

German,  3  hours,  and  arithmetic,  3  hours;  or  German,  3  hours, 
arithmetic,  2  hours,  and  writing,  1  hour. 

The  eighteen  hours  of  the  three  regular  divisions  are 
apportioned  as  follows: 

Commercial  science,  with  German,  and  Correspondence,  at  least 
6  hours. 

Arithmetic,  at  least  5  hours. 
Bookkeeping,  at  least  3  hours. 
Civics,  at  least  1  hour. 

58 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS 


59 


The  remaining  three  hours  may  be  devoted  to  eco- 
nomic geography,  to  writing  and  stenography,  or  may 
be  distributed  among  commercial  science,  arithmetic,  and 
bookkeeping. 

In  case  the  course  occupies  more  than  six  hours  per 
week,  the  rest  of  the  time  may  be  utilized  (1)  in  a  more 
extensive  study  of  German,  civics,  and  commercial  sub- 
jects, (2)  for  foreign  languages,  or  (3)  for  stenography, 
penmanship,  and  typewriting.  Under  like  conditions, 
the  introduction  of  compulsory  g>'mnastics  and  games  is 
strongly  recommended. 

Below  will  be  found  two  suggested  distributions  of 
subjects  and  time  allotments  for  the  three  year  course, 
with  variations  (in  parenthesis)  that  may  be  followed 
in  the  smaller  communities  where  the  number  of  pupils 
is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  a  separate  class  for  each 
year: 


Commercial  science,  with  German, 

and  Correspondence 

Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Economic  geography  and  Civics. . . 


Lower 
Division 


3(2) 
2 

-d) 
1 


6 


Middle 
Division 


Upper 
Division 


2 

1(2) 
2(1) 
1 


Poor  writers  in  any  division  may  be  compelled  to  come 
an  additional  hour  for  penmanship. 


60 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


II.  ComniiTcial  science,  with  German, 

and  Correspondence 

Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Civics 

Penmanship  and  Stenography 


Lower 
Division 


2(3) 
2 


2(1) 


Middle 
Division 


2(3) 

2 

1 

!(-) 


Upper 
Division 


A  suggested  distribution  is  also  appended  for  those 
communities  that  have  only  four  hours  per  week,  a  prac- 
tice that  is  recognized  by  authorities  under  exceptional 
conditions,  but  one  that  is  never  encouraged: 


Lower 
Division 

Middle 
Division 

Upper 
Division 

Commercial    science,   with    German, 
and  Correspondence 

2 
2 

W2 
IH 

1 

IM 

Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

IH 
1 

4 

4 

4 

While  the  central  authorities  do  not  refuse  to  sanction 
modifications  in  the  time  allotment,  they  are  specially 
solicitous  against  further  dispersal  of  the  time  into 
smaller  units.  In  fact,  one  of  the  chief  purposes  of  the 
new  program  was  to  avoid  multiplicity  of  subjects  and 
to  reduce  the  number  to  the  minimum.  At  all  events, 
they  have  accomplished  much  in  simplifying  the  task 
of  the  investigator,  if  only  in  unifying  the  nomencla- 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  61 

ture.  There  are  only  slight  indications  of  any  tendency 
to  take  advantage  of  the  modicum  of  freedom  provided 
in  the  regulations,  for  the  programs  of  the  various  city 
systems  conform  almost  literally  to  the  suggested 
scheme.  Some  directors  refer  with  ill-concealed  satis- 
faction in  their  annual  reports  to  the  few  changes  neces- 
sary in  their  own  school  programs  in  order  to  make 
them  accord  with  the  new  regulations.  The  first  sug- 
gested distribution  of  subjects  and  hours  (p.  59)  seems 
to  be  the  one  most  generally  adopted. 

Under  the  caption  Instruction  and  Education,  the  offi- 
cial regulations  assert  ^  that  "instruction  in  the  continu- 
ation school  must  especially  consider  the 

Aim. 
peculiar  characteristics  of  the  period  be- 
tween the  fourteenth  and  the  eighteenth  year,  the  awak- 
ened feeling  of  honor  and  the  impulse  toward  independ- 
ence being  of  particular  value  as  instruments  of  educa- 
tion. Especial  stress  is  to  be  laid  on  character  building 
upon  a  broad,  moral-religious  basis. 

"Topics  of  instruction  must  always  be  selected  so  as 
to  further  the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  school,  to  co- 
operate in  ministering  to  the  pupil's  subsequent  life  and 
vocational  interests,  and  to  enhance  the  pleasure  de- 
rived  from   work A  proper   limitation   of  the 

material  presented  to  the  pupils  is  highly  desirable.    An 

*  Verwaltungsbericht  des  koniglich  preussischen  Landesgewerbeamts, 
1912,  p.  141. 


62  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

excess  of  topics  which  cannot  be  assimihxted  through 
lack  of  time  is  to  be  deplored.  Only  so  much  material 
is  to  be  brought  before  the  class  as  may  be  thoroughly 
assimilated  and  mastered,  allowing  adequate  time  for 
practical  application  and  reviews." 

Teaching  procedure  receives  brief  consideration  in 
the  new  regulations.  It  is  supposed  to  differ  materially 
from  the  practice  of  the  lower  school  even  as  the  ages 
of  the  two  groups  of  pupils  are  different.  Formal  ques- 
tion and  answer  are  not  to  be  employed  exclusively 
either  in  the  presentation  of  new  material  or  in  the  re- 
view of  old.  As  far  as  possible  problems  should  be  given 
which  draw  upon  the  pupils'  own  experience,  and  which 
would  actually  be  encountered  in  their  every  day  work. 
"The  aim  must  ever  be  to  free  the  pupils  from  the  lead- 
ing strings  of  the  teacher  and  to  spur  them  on  so  as  to 
make  them  capable  of  independent  further  self-develop- 
ment at  the  close  of  the  school  course." 

All  these  excerpts  seem  to  indicate  a  desire  for  a  feel- 
ing of  self-reliance,  and  an  independence  of  thought  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils  of  the  continuation  schools  that 
are  quite  at  variance  with  the  traditional  principles  of 
a  paternalistic  government  like  Germany.  What  little 
self-reliance  appears,  is  confined  to  very  narrow  limits. 
The  government,  by  the  complicated  system  of  safe- 
guards with  which  it  surrounds  the  citizen,  deprives  him 
largely  of  the  opportunity  to  exercise  his  individuality. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  63 

It  taxes  him  to  almost  unbelievable  limits,  to  extremes 
unthinkable  under  conditions  of  real  democratic  control, 
on  the  ground  that  it  is  much  more  competent  to  expend 
his  money  wisely  than  is  he  himself.  With  the  modicum 
of  his  earnings  that  remains  he  is  free  to  do  as  he 
chooses,  but  when  living  expenses  are  provided  for,  only 
an  emasculated  freedom  of  choice  is  left  to  the  indi- 
vidual. 

Despite  steady  work  and  a  thriving  industrial  situ- 
ation, living  conditions  are  growing  steadily  worse.  The 
lowest  classes  can  have  meat  only  with  the  greatest  difl5- 
culty,  and  even  the  middle  classes  are  beginning  to  feel 
the  strain.  Taxes  are  everywhere  mounting  by  leaps 
and  bounds.  Formerly  the  state  taxes  were  collected 
through  local  officials.  Not  long  ago,  in  the  belief  that 
too  much  leniency  was  often  shown  here,  the  central 
government  determined  to  make  its  own  collections.  A 
force  of  officials  was  sent  to  each  large  center,  offices 
were  opened,  and  a  new  regime  was  inaugurated.  De- 
spite largely  increased  expenditures  for  collection,  the 
net  amount  turned  into  the  government  treasury  was 
considerably  augmented.  It  merely  meant  a  more  care- 
ful gleaning,  with  the  people  paying  the  difference.  One 
tax  collector  found  that  a  certain  commercial  traveler 
was  allowed  by  his  firm  fourteen  marks  per  day  on  his 
expense  account.  (This  was  readily  ascertainable,  for 
every  business  man  must  keep  his  books  in  a  prescribed 


64  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

fashion,  and  must  at  all  times  have  them  open  to  gov- 
ernment inspection.)  He  informed  the  traveling  man 
that  he  did  not  need  more  than  twelve  marks  a  day  for 
traveling  expenses,  and  that  therefore  he  must  pay  an 
additional  income  tax  on  the  extra  two  marks  per  day, 
720  marks  per  year.  The  traveler  protested,  but  in  vain. 
The  government  had  decided,  and  he  must  pay.  It 
would  be  quite  futile  for  the  firm  to  attempt  to  get  the 
better  of  the  government  by  cutting  the  allowance  to 
twelve  marks.  The  state  would  still  collect  its  tax  on 
the  other  tw^o  marks. 

In  a  similar  relentless  fashion,  the  government  collects 
a  church  tax  and  transmits  it  to  the  churches.  This 
can  only  be  construed  on  the  ground  that  the  gov- 
ernment knows  better  what  the  individual's  contri- 
bution should  be  than  he  himself.  One  practically 
has  to  pay  it  whether  he  is  in  accord  with  the 
church  or  not.  True,  by  going  through  a  certain 
process,  he  may  declare  that  he  is  not  in  sympathy  with 
any  church,  and  may  swear  off  the  tax,  as  it  were.  Even 
then  he  is  not  relieved  from  the  necessity  of  paying  it 
for  two  years.  Such  a  procedure,  however,  is  somewhat 
on  a  par  with  taking  the  poor  debtor's  oath  in  America, 
for  the  person  who  does  it  becomes  almost  a  social 
pariah. 

The  spirit  of  initiative  is  practically  possible  only 
within   limits   marked   out   by   a    government   that   is 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  65 

responsible  not  to  the  people,  but  to  the  king  alone.  In- 
dependence of  thought  on  the  part  of  the  masses  of  the 
people  is  in  reality  almost  a  euphemism.  German  offi- 
cialdom seems  to  have  a  wholesome  dread  of  anything 
unusual;  it  apparently  believes  it  inimical  to  the  pub- 
lic weal  to  let  the  people  really  think  out  anything  for 
themselves.  The  proletariat  believe  they  think  abso- 
lutely untrammeled,  but  in  a  country  so  plentifully  sup- 
plied with  subsidized  and  semi-ofl&cial  newspapers  which 
so  frequently  put  before  their  readers  in  the  morning  the 
policies  carefully  disclosed  for  the  benefit  of  their  Ber- 
lin correspondents  the  day  before,  what  opportunity  is 
there  for  any  real  independence  of  thought?  True,  the 
people  may  form  their  own  judgments,  but  these  are 
largely  founded  upon  material  emanating  from  inspired 
sources.  The  affair  at  Agadir  and  the  incident  at  Nancy 
show  what  a  marvelously  organized  press  bureau  the 
government  possesses  for  directing  the  formation  of  pub- 
lic opinion.  One  ought  not  to  be  surprised,  then,  at  the 
number  of  thinking  men  who  are  fairly  obsessed  by  the 
idea  that  the  hand  of  the  world  is  against  Germany,  that 
Russia,  France,  and  England  are  only  waiting  the  op- 
portune moment  to  pounce  upon  her.  With  the  pre- 
valence of  this  feeling,  the  voting  of  war  budgets  be- 
comes perfectly  simple. 

One  scarcely  thinks  of  independence  of  thought  in 
a  country  where  the  principles  of  the  dominant  single 


66  COMMERCIAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

party  in  the  national  assembly  (1913)  are  anathema 
in  the  schools.  Not  only  has  a  Social  Democrat 
absolutely  no  chance  of  securing  a  teacher's  or 
any  other  appointment  in  the  gift  of  the  govern- 
ment, but  if  one  such  official  dares  to  exercise  any 
freedom  of  thought  and  espouses  the  principles  of  this 
party,  he  will  be  officially  guillotined  with  the  utmost 
expedition,  and  will  forthwith  forfeit  all  benefit  of  pen- 
sion and  the  like  that  may  have  accrued  by  reason  of 
past  services. 

With  certain  qualifications  of  terms,  then,  the  con- 
tinuation schools  indeed  do  strive  to  develop  self-reli- 
ance, initiative,  and  independence  of  thought,  but  al- 
ways with  the  German  connotation,  and  not  with  that 
commonly  accepted  in  America.  One  must  constantly 
keep  in  mind  that  many  expressions  are  interpreted  in 
terms  of  national  ideas  and  national  ideals.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  the  subjects  of  study  and  the  methods  of  in- 
struction seem  admirably  suited  to  attain  the  desired 
end.  Commercial  science,  German,  correspondence, 
arithmetic,  and  bookkeeping  are  narrowly  vocational; 
the  economic  geography  offers  some  opportunity  for  a 
wider  orientation,  but  always  from  a  purely  utilitarian 
viewpoint;  and  the  civic  instruction  provides  a  modicum 
of  direct  training  for  citizenship.  Everything  is  reduced 
to  its  lowest  terms,  and  everything  of  an  adventitious 
nature  is  carefully  eliminated.    Below  will  be  found  a 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  67 

more  definite  analysis  of  the  scope  of  the  various  sub- 
jects, the  aims  to  be  attained,  and  some  statement  of  the 
means  by  which  the  results  are  reached. 

Commercial  science  (Handelskunde)  might  perhaps 
more  exactly  be  rendered  "knowledge  of  business,"  for 
it   aims   to    acquaint  the   pupil   with   the    commercial 

various    minutiae    of    commercial    life,    its       Science, 

German,  and 
practices  rather  than  its  theories.^    It  is  so     correspon- 

closely  bound  up  with  German  and  corre-  dence. 
spondence  as  to  be  united  with  them  under  a  common 
caption.  "German"  in  this  connection  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  literature  of  the  language.  In  fact,  the  term 
is  almost  superfluous,  for  all  essential  details  might  be 
presupposed  by  the  commercial  science  and  the  corre- 
spondence. 

While  the  expression  "commercial  science"  is  univers- 
ally used,  one  must  not  infer  that  the  topics  treated 
will  be  universally  the  same.  In  commer-  ^  commercial 
cial  ports  like  Hamburg  or  Duisburg,  the  science, 
subject  matter  would  pay  particular  attention  to  the 
shipping  and  transportation  trade,  while  in  great  manu- 
facturing centers  like  Barmen  and  Elberfeld,  the  com- 
mercial work  would  reflect  the  prevailing  industries  of 
the  region.    In  general  the  topics  include: 

*  The  major  part  of  the  content  of  the  various  subjects  found  on 
the  pages  immediately  following  has  been  adapted  more  or  less 
freely  from  Verwaltungsberichl  des  koniglich  preiissischen  Landes- 
gewerbeamts,  1912,  p.  142,  et  seq. 


OS  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

Lower  Division:  The  apprentice  at  work  and 
at  school;  conduct  of  business;  relations  with  cus- 
tomers; buying  and  selling;  shipping  by  parcel  post, 
express,  and  freight. 

Middle  Division:  Trade;  credit;  especially  bills 
of  exchange  and  checks. 

Upper  Division:  Banking  and  exchange;  rela- 
tions with  the  government;  fundamentals  of  trade, 
the  trading  class,  and  partnership;  general  review. 

Teachers  are  urged  to  bring  before  their  pupils  only 
those  problems  and  situations  that  would  be  encountered 
in  the  daily  routine  of  business.  Fundamentals  of  trade 
would  therefore  include:  offers  and  acceptances,  filling 
orders  and  delays,  sales  and  payment  therefor,  claims 
and  claim  procedure,  shipping  by  post  and  railroad,  cir- 
culation of  bills  of  exchange,  relations  with  banks  and 
the  exchange.  The  regulations  of  the  continuation 
school,  the  apprentice's  indenture,  advertisements  and 
notices  in  the  daily  papers,  the  savings  bank  and  its 
pass  book,  the  tax  bill,  market  reports,  insurance  con- 
tracts, and  the  like  offer  particularly  good  points  of  de- 
parture for  discussion.  The  economic  and  the  legal 
aspects  of  the  foregoing  should  also  be  considered.  Oc- 
casionally references  to  the  historical  development  of 
the  postal  system,  bills  of  exchange,  and  the  stock  ex- 
change, may  contribute  to  vitalizing  and  solidifying  the 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  60 

instruction.  Lessons  may  also  be  drawn  from  commer- 
cial life  for  inculcating  ideas  of  good  citizenship.  Not 
only  must  a  business  enterprise  be  conducted  for  its  own 
profit,  but  at  the  same  time  it  must  rest  upon  a  broad 
ethical  basis  and  be  conducive  to  the  national  economic 
weal.  From  this  point  of  view  are  to  be  treated  the 
relations  between  employer  and  employee,  the  signifi- 
cance of  business  integrity,  the  dependence  upon  credit 
in  the  business  world,  the  uniform  regulations  of  finance 
and  customs,  and  the  like. 

The  pupil  is  expected  to  be  able  to  execute  inde- 
pendently, readily,  and  correctly  the  most  important 
papers  he  is  likely  to  meet  in  his  business 

2.  Written  Work. 

or  civic  life,  and  to  express  himself  clearly 
and  precisely  on  all  subjects  that  fall  within  his  range 
of  experience.  The  written  work  must  be  strictly  lim- 
ited to  his  probable  needs,  and  much  stress  is  to  be  laid 
upon  drafting  business  letters.  It  goes  without  saying 
that  clear-cut  ideas  are  absolutely  essential  to  correct 
expression.  Letters  will  then  be  drawn  up  and  formu- 
lated in  accordance  with  specific  situations.  As  far  as 
possible,  they  must  be  written  by  the  pupils  working 
independently.  Variety  of  oral  expression  is  encour- 
aged as  a  means  of  developing  a  flowing  and  pleasing 
style.  Regular  printed  forms  occurring  in  the  daily 
routine  of  business  are  brought  into  the  class  room,  and 
the  pupils  are  trained  to  fill  them  out  correctly  and 


70  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

intelligently/  The  pupils  are  drilled  in  drawing  up  in 
correct  form  letters,  circulars,  business  advertisements, 
bills,  receipts,  petitions  and  the  like.  Essays  on  com- 
mercial topics,  lesson  notes,  and  business  forms  filled  in 
by  the  pupils  must  be  examined  frequently  by  the 
teacher  and  returned  to  the  writers  for  correction. 

Although  in  the  continuation  school,  except  in  the 
preparatory  division  and  more  exceptionally  in  the  lower 
3.  Mother  division,  formal  grammar,  spelling,  and 
Tongue.  puuctuatioH  havo  no  special  place,  all  these 
subjects  are  treated  incidentally  throughout  the  course. 
Every  piece  of  written  work  is  a  composition  lesson,  and 
every  recitation  is  an  exercise  in  correct  oral  expression. 
Foreign  words  and  expressions  that  have  become  current 
in  the  commercial  world  are  to  be  explained  and  their 
correct  use  and  spelling  taught,  but  wherever  there  are 
satisfactory  German  equivalents,  these  latter  must  be 
employed.    Every  effort  is  to  be  put  forth  in  inculcating 

*  The  number  of  such  printed  forms  is  nothing  short  of  astound- 
ing. One  teacher  with  whom  I  talked  stated  that  there  were  prob- 
ably two  hundred  used  in  the  lower  schools.  This  is  far  from  an 
exaggeration,  as  one  who  takes  the  trouble  to  glance  through  the 
more  than  four  hundred  different  blanks  and  forms  in  the  set  of 
"  Kaufmdnnische  Briefwechsel-  und  Formularsammlung"  issued  by 
the  W.  Bertelsmann  Verlag  in  Bielefeld  will  easily  convince  himself. 
There  is  a  prescribed  way  of  making  out  every  paper,  whether  it 
be  addressing  the  envelope  of  a  letter,  or  the  label  on  a  package  to 
be  sent  by  fast  freight,  making  apphcation  for  a  money  order,  or 
sending  in  a  claim  for  goods  lost  in  transit,  and  the  pupil  must  act- 
ually write  these  and  countless  others  in  the  class  room. 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  71 

a  pure  German,  and  a  vigorous  campaign  is  to  be  waged 
against  the  questionable  and  often  faulty  provincialisms 
that  so  readily  creep  into  the  language  of  business.  Ex- 
cept in  the  preparatory  division,  no  time  can  be  spent 
upon  formal  reading,  for  this  is  of  little  moment  in  com- 
mercial science.  Readiness  of  speech  and  the  accom- 
panying written  drill  are  far  more  important.  Yet  fa- 
cility in  handling  the  ordinary  printed  forms  of  business 
life  and  documents  such  as  statutes,  contracts,  and  the 
like  is  an  essential  accomplishment.  Reading  may  be 
treated  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  interpreta- 
tion of  selected  passages  from  the  Commercial  Code 
(Handelsgesetzbuch)  and  the  Civil  Code  {Biirgerliches 
Gesetzbuch).  Further  than  this  the  teachers  can  only 
urge  upon  their  pupils  the  necessity  and  importance  of 
good  reading  and  direct  their  attention  to  this  from 
time  to  time.. 

Practically  all  the  lessons  under  this  general  rubric 
that  it  was  my  good  fortune  to  hear,  belonged  to  the 
division  of  commercial  science  or  business 

procedure,  and  I  venture  to  say  that  this    ^ethodsof 

•^  Instruction, 

subject  occupies  by   far  the   greater  part 

of  the  seven  week  hours  devoted  to  the  general  group 

during  the  three  year  course.     It  certainly  is  most  in 

evidence  to  the  visitor,  and  is  the  center  about  which 

nearly  everything  else  revolves.    The  arithmetic  is  based 

upon  it;  the  bookkeeping  is  necessarily  built  up  on  the 


,2  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

same  foundation.  As  has  been  already  indicated,  it  is 
primarily  concerned  with  business  practices  rather  than 
business  theories,  for  one  must  constantly  bear  in  mind 
that  this  is  purely  a  vocational  school  in  the  narrow 
sense  of  the  word,  that  its  purpose  is  to  teach  the  real 
A  B  C's  of  commercial  life.  What  the  business  man 
does  and  how  he  does  it  are  of  prime  importance,  not 
why  does  he  do  it,  or  how  else  might  he  do  it.  The 
whole  German  business  procedure  is  so  prescribed  and 
regulated  that  a  very  definite  program  of  work  can  be 
laid  out  which  will  include  practically  every  conceivable 
situation  the  ordinary  man  will  ever  meet.  The  Im- 
perial Trade  Regulations  (Gewerbeordnung) ,  the  Com- 
mercial Code  (Handelsgesetzbuch),  the  Merchants' 
Courts  (Kaufmannsgerichte) ,  the  Insolvency  Regula- 
tions (Konkursordnung) ,  and  the  Bills  of  Exchange 
Regulations  (Wechselordnung),  each  a  small  volume 
which  may  be  purchased  for  at  most  twenty  cents,  con- 
tain practically  all  that  a  business  man  ever  needs  to 
know  about  the  legal  aspects  of  his  enterprise  and  its 
status,  while  the  modicum  of  all  this  information  with 
which  the  ordinary  clerk,  employee,  or  even  bookkeeper 
should  be  acquainted  is  small  indeed.  Within  the  last 
few  years,  many  good  manuals  have  appeared  that  bring 
together  all  the  essential  facts  in  small  compass,^  but 

^  See  Knork,  Otto,  Der  kaufmdnnische  Unterricht.    Handbtich  der 
MethodikfurLehrer,Kaufleute,undStudierende.      Berlin,  1913.    This 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  73 

practically  none  of  them  ever  gets  down  into  the  con- 
tinuation schools.  Purchase  of  books  is  reduced  to  the 
minimum,  the  teacher  furnishing  the  chief  source  of  the 
pupil's  information.  Since  the  acquisition  of  facts  and 
the  successful  following  of  a  mere  rule  of  thumb  pro- 
cedure play  such  an  important  role  in  the  work  of  the 
continuation  school,  it  is  perhaps  not  surprising  that  the 
question  and  answer  method  of  instruction  is  so  pre- 
valent, notwithstanding  express  suggestions  to  the  con- 
trary in  the  official  regulations  issued  from  Berlin.  Oc- 
casionally one  finds  instances  of  definite  efforts  to  stimu- 
late independent  thought  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  but 
they  are  rather  infrequent. 

One  lesson  that  I  heard  in  the  lower  division,  occupy- 
ing part  of  an  hour,  was  devoted  to  a  resume  of  the 
various  ways   in  which   a  merchant  may    typical  Les- 
ship   small   parcels:    freight,   express,   fast        sons: 
express,  and  parcel  post.    The  government,     **  ^^pp"'^- 
by  the  way,  through  its  railroad  ownership  handles  all 
this  traffic.    Each  of  these  was  defined,  and  its  applic- 
ability  to   various  kinds   of   goods   was   carefully   ex- 
plained.   Delay  in  delivery  may  not  exceed  the  follow- 
ing maxima:    for   freight  packages,  two  days  for  de- 
spatching,  one   day   for   forwarding  the   first  hundred 
tariff-kilometers,  and  one  day  for  each  additional  two 

invaluable  work  is' indispensable  for  the 'student  of  commercial 
education  in  Germany  and  Austria.  It  contains  full  bibliographies. 
See  in  this  connection  pp.  191-193. 


74  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

hundred  tariff-kilometers;  for  express  packages,  one  day 
for  despatching,  and  one  day  for  each  three  hundred 
tariff-kilometers;  for  fast  express  packages,  one-half  day 
for  despatching,  and  one-half  day  for  each  three  hun- 
dred tariff-kilometers.  Parcel  post  packages  are  sub- 
ject to  the  ordinary  delivery  conditions  of  that  class  of 
mail.  Germany,  including  Austria  as  well,  is  divided 
into  six  zones  with  the  following  limits  in  geographical 
(German)  miles:  10,  20,  50,  100,  150,  and  over  150. 
There  is  a  carefully  graduated  scale  of  charges  from 
twenty-five  pfennigs  for  five  kilograms  or  less,  and  five 
pfennigs  extra  for  each  additional  kilogram,  up  to  fifty 
pfennigs  in  the  sixth  zone  for  five  kilograms  or  less,  and 
fifty  pfennigs  for  each  additional  kilogram.  After  going 
over  each  particular  weight  for  each  zone,  the  whole  was 
generalized  in  much  the  same  form  as  for  the  two  zones 
stated  above,  and  one  or  two  practical  examples  were 
given,  such  as:  "What  is  the  cost  of  shipping  a  seven 
kilogram  package  from  here  to  a  town  in  the  sixth 
zone?" 

This  work  in  the  first  place  shows  something  of  the 
mass  of  detailed  information  that  the  pupil  has  to  master 
and  carry  in  mind  ready  for  instant  use.  Again  it  indi- 
cates the  immense  superiority  of  the  German  shipping 
system,  and  suggests  how  it  is  possible  for  you  to  ask 
your  book  dealer  in  Cologne  to  order  you  a  book  from 
Leipzig,  and  to  have  him  tell  you  exactly  when  it  will 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  75 

be  ready  for  you.  He  knows  just  how  long  it  will  take 
for  his  letter  to  go ;  he  knows  that  the  order  will  be  filled 
within  a  few  hours  if  the  book  is  obtainable  in  Leip- 
zig; and  he  knows  exactly  how  long  it  will  take  for  the 
parcel  to  reach  him.  If  one  goes  to  the  trouble  of  read- 
ing the  post  ofiice  regulations  a  little  further,  one  will 
find  that  for  Germany  and  Austria,  the  address  on  a 
parcel  post  package  must  be  written  on  a  special  yellow 
label,  while  for  other  foreign  countries,  a  light  gray 
label  is  required;  unstamped  packages  must  pay  an  ad- 
ditional fee  of  ten  pfennigs,  and  numerous  other  regu- 
lations. None  of  the  latter  regulations  was  considered 
in  this  particular  class,  but  they  were  unquestionably 
taken  up  at  another  time. 

Another  teacher  in  an  hour's  lesson  started  with  a 
phase  of  shipping  merchandise  by  rail  (Eisenbahnver- 
kehr) ,  moved  on  to  the  various  methods  of  ^  g^g  ^f  j.^. 
paying  for  goods  purchased  in  another  ciiange. 
town,  and  concluded  with  a  somewhat  extensive  con- 
sideration of  bills  of  exchange.  All  things  considered, 
it  was  one  of  the  best  lessons  I  heard  in  the  continuation 
schools.  The  first  two  parts  were  largely  in  the  nature 
of  review,  relatively  little  new  work  being  presented, 
and  the  experience  of  the  pupils  being  drawn  upon  as 
freely  as  possible,  while  the  last  and  most  important 
part  consisted  chiefly  of  new  material.  Fatigue  was 
avoided,  in  spite  of  the  full  sixty  minutes  employed,  by 


7G  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

tlio  variety  of  subject  matter,  and  the  pupils  did 
at?  much  individual  thinking  as  was  possible  con- 
sidering the  nature  of  the  material,  and  the  purpose  in 
view. 

A  claim  for  the  recovery  of  goods  shipped  to  the 
wrong  address  provided  the  immediate  point  of  de- 
parture. Two  boys  in  the  class  were  discovered  who 
had  come  across  just  such  an  experience  in  the  course 
of  their  business.  After  strict  injunctions  against  using 
any  names,  the  teacher  asked  them  to  tell  exactly  what 
steps  were  taken  by  their  employers  and  how  they  even- 
tually recovered  the  merchandise.  It  is  a  very  compli- 
cated process,  whose  recital  would  be  of  little  interest 
to  the  reader.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  a  specific  form  of 
claim  must  be  used.  This  was  thoroughly  discussed,  and 
the  pupils  were  directed  to  write  this  out  each  for  him- 
self for  the  next  time,  which,  by  the  way,  a  goodly  num- 
ber did  during  a  part  of  the  intermission  that  followed 
the  lesson. 

It  was  an  easy  transition  from  this  topic  to  the  vari- 
ous ways  a  purchaser  might  pay  for  goods  bought  in  an- 
other town.  The  money  order,  postal  check,  exchange 
on  the  Imperial  Bank,  and  currency  sent  by  ordinary 
letter  post  were  quickly  passed  in  review,  with  a  brief 
statement  of  the  details  necessary  in  each  of  these  in- 
stances.   One  might  add  that  the  last  is  a  perfectly  safe 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  77 

method  of  procedure  in  Germany  and  is  very  convenient 
where  the  exact  sum  can  be  obtained  in  paper  money. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  write  the  precise  amount  on  the 
outside  of  the  envelope  and  to  pay  a  slight  additional 
fee  calculated  on  a  sliding  scale. 

The  foregoing  furnished  a  natural  preliminary  to  a 
somewhat  extensive  consideration  of  the  ordinary  bill  of 
exchange.  It  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  the  personal 
and  the  certified  check  as  we  understand  them  in  Amer- 
ica are  practically  unknown  in  German  business  circles, 
the  great  majority  of  the  commercial  payments  being 
made  by  the  time-honored  bill  of  exchange.  This  is 
consequently  the  most  important  single  document  with 
which  the  commercial  apprentice  must  be  acquainted. 
It  certainly  occupies  a  dominant  place  in  the  work  of 
these  vocational  schools,  although  some  recent  statistics 
declare  that  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  commercial  pupils 
never  have  actually  to  handle  these  bills  in  the  course 
of  their  business  careers.^  Nearly  every  boy  in  this 
class  had  seen  a  real  bill  at  his  employer's  office,  so  most 
of  the  essential  features  were  skilfully  drawn  from  the 
pupils,  all,  I  believe,  except  the  presence  of  the  word 
"Wechsel"  in  the  body  of  the  bill.  With  these  facts  in 
hand,  supplemented  by  some  additional  data  from  the 
teacher,  the  following  was  written: 

^  Knoek,  Der  kaufmdnnische  Unterrichl,  p.  21. 


78  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

Diisscldorf,  den  4  MiLrz,  1913. 
Drci    Monaten     nach    hcute,    zahlen    Sic    gogen  diese  Prima 

Wcchsel  an  die  Order  des  Herrn  B. die  Summa  von  Mark  acht 

tausend,  Wert  in  Waren. 
An  Becker  &  Co., 

Dortmund.  F.  Schmidt  &  Co. 


The  five  different  kinds  of  bills  of  exchange,  consid- 
ered from  the  point  of  view  of  the  time  to  run,  were 
touched  upon  briefly,  passing  consideration  was  given  to 
the  acceptance  by  the  drawee,  and  the  eight  essential 
parts  of  the  bill  were  carefully  noted,  to  wit:  (1)  place 
and  date;  (2)  when  payable;  (3)  presence  of  the  word 
"Wechsel";  (4)  payee;  (5)  amount;  (6)  drawer;  (7) 
drawee;  and  (8)  place  of  payment.  Finally  came  a 
rapid  review  of  the  whole  matter  on  the  bill  of  ex- 
change. Extended  consideration  of  the  acceptance  or 
refusal  of  acceptance  by  the  drawee,  indorsement,  pro- 
test, and  numerous  other  attendant  questions  were  not 
touched  upon  at  all,  but  they  would  all  come  up  at 
other  times.  The  facts  relating  to  the  bill  of  exchange 
provide  sufficient  material  for  many  lessons. 

A  third  year  class  devoted  a  lesson  period  to  a  con- 
sideration of  some  salient  features  of  the  German  bank- 
ing system.    A  hasty  sketch  of  the  histori- 

3.  Banking. 

cal  development  of  banking  among  the 
Romans,  Greeks,  and  Babylonians,  the  use  of  money 
in  trade,  and  the  eventual  introduction  of  exchange  in 
Italy  in  the  fourteenth  century,  provided  a  fitting  ap- 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  79 

preach  to  the  present  system.  The  character  of  the 
facts  brought  out  and  the  means  employed  in  doing 
this  may  be  suggested  by  the  following  notes  on  a  por- 
tion of  the  lesson: 

Teacher.  "  What  is  our  leading  bank? "  Pupil.  "The  Imperial 
Bank."  T.  "Is  this  a  government  bank?"  P.  "No."  T. 
"What  kind  of  a  bank  is  it?"  P.  "A  private  bank."  T,  "Un- 
der whose  supervision  is  it  carried  on?"  P.  "Under  the  super- 
vision of  the  state  authorities."  T.  "Was  this  the  first  bank  of 
the  kind  in  Prussia?"  P.  "No."  T.  "WTiat  was  the  name  of 
its  predecessor? "  P.  "The  Prussian  Circulation  and  Loan  Bank. " 
T.  "Who  founded  this  bank?"  (This  was  too  much  for  the  class, 
and  the  teacher  suppUed  the  information)  "Frederic  the  Great." 
T.  "When  was  the  Imperial  Bank  established?"  P.  "1875." 
T.  "What  are  its  fxmctions?"  P.  "It  is  a  medium  for  settling 
accounts,  controls  the  currency  circulation,  and  regulates  the  rate 
of  discount."  T.  "What  is  the  amount  of  its  capital?"  P. 
"M  180,000,000."  T.  "Is  the  Imperial  Bank  the  largest  bank 
in  Germany?"  P.  "No."  T.  " What  is  the  largest? "  P.  "The 
Deutsche  Bank,  Berlin,"  etc.,  etc. 

Thus  the  lesson  went  on.  Nearly  every  answer  given 
was  reviewed  by  another  pupil  a  few  moments  later. 
Facts  were  certainly  driven  home,  but  the  pupils  gained 
little  out  of  the  lesson  beyond  the  bare  facts.  Yet  this 
was  a  lesson  whose  spirit  extended  considerably  beyond 
the  narrow  utilitarian  limits  of  most  of  the  work  in  this 
commercial  science,  for  few  if  any  of  the  points  brought 
out  had  any  direct  bearing  upon  the  daily  routine  of 
business.  The  issuance  of  bank  notes  was  discussed  at 
some  length,  but  in  this  same  narrow  fashion.  Foreign 
countries  were  brought  in,  especially  France,  England, 
and  the  United  States.    Much  to  my  surprise,  the  con- 


so 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


ditions  under  which  Amcricnn  national  banks  may  issue 
bank  notes  were  given  correctly  by  the  pupils.  Finally, 
during  the  last  part  of  the  period  the  work  assumed  a 
more  practical  turn  and  took  up  the  subject  of  discount- 
ing bills  of  exchange,  a  topic  bristling  with  technicalities 
for  the  layman. 

A  lesson  in  the  same  general  field  which  I  heard  in 
a  girls'  class  in  Hamburg  was  essentially  different  in 

4.  Business  character.  Hamburg  is  a  free  city,  and 
Science.  ^j^^  conditions  prevailing  there  are  not  the 
same  that  one  finds  in  Prussia.  The  course  in  question,^ 
three  semesters  in  length  with  four  hours  per  week  in 
winter  and  six  hours  in  summer,  is  primarily  for  sales- 
girls. While  business  science  (Geschdftskunde)  here  is 
restricted  almost  exclusively  to  the  conduct  of  the  young 
woman  in  the  shop,  considerable  scope  is  afforded  for 
incidental  references  to  the  general  attitude,  bearing, 


1  CONTINTJATION  ScHOOL  FOR  SALESGIRLS — HAMBURG 


Subjects 

Periods  per  Week 

l-Semester 

2-Semester 

3-Semester 

German,  Business  science,  and 
Deportment 

Arithmetic 

Commercial  science  and  Busi- 
ness correspondence 

Commercial  arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

2 
2 

2 
2 

1 
1 

2 

LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  81 

and  dress  of  the  girl  outside,  conduct  on  the  street  and 
in  public  conveyances,  deference  toward  elders,  and  the 
like.  Personal  appearance  of  the  clerk,  neatness  in  dress, 
care  of  the  teeth,  hair,  and  hands,  politeness  toward 
customers,  consideration  of  fellow  employees,  and  nu- 
merous other  questions  of  a  similar  nature  all  come  in 
for  a  share  of  attention. 

One  girl  was  called  up  before  the  class  to  act  as  sales- 
woman in  an  imaginary  transaction,  supposed  to  take 
place  in  a  woman's  clothing  department.  Another  one 
was  sent  out  of  the  room  with  directions  to  act  as  the 
would-be  purchaser  of  a  coat.  Very  shortly,  the  latter 
opened  the  door  and  walked  in.  The  saleswoman  greeted 
the  customer  politely,  found  out  what  she  wanted, 
fetched  a  chair  for  her  to  sit  upon,  and  brought  several 
coats  (selecting  from  those  of  her  classmates  that  were 
hanging  along  the  wall  of  the  school  room) .  After  con- 
siderable discussion,  the  clerk  found  a  coat  that  ap- 
pealed to  the  customer,  and  had  her  try  it  on.  It  did 
not  fit,  and  besides  the  weight  of  the  material  was  not 
exactly  to  her  liking.  The  clerk  brought  several  more. 
After  trying  on  three  or  four  others,  the  customer  sur- 
veying the  fit  in  an  imaginary  mirror,  she  finally  found 
a  coat  that  suited  her,  and  agreed  to  take  it.  The  clerk 
took  down  her  name  and  address  in  thoroughly  formal 
fashion,  and  promised  to  deliver  the  coat  at  a  certain 
time.    Just  at  this  moment,  another  girl,  sent  out  shortly 


82  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

before,  came  in  as  another  prospective  purchaser.  Thus 
tlie  clerk  had  two  clients  to  handle  at  once.  She  ushered 
the  first  one  to  the  door,  and  then  turned  to  the  new 
arrival.  This  latter  was  very  hard  to  please.  She  looked 
over  many  coats,  trying  on  several,  but  found  nothing 
to  her  taste,  and  finally  went  away  without  buying. 

Then  the  other  members  of  the  class  were  called  on 
for  their  criticisms.  (At  the  outset  of  the  work,  they 
had  been  told  to  watch  carefully  for  points  worthy  of 
note.  All  took  out  pencils  and  paper  for  their  record, 
but  very  few  wrote  anything.  The  teacher  had  been 
somewhat  more  active  in  this  direction.)  Few  of  the 
pupils  had  any  observations  to  make.  The  teacher 
pointed  out  several  noteworthy  characteristics  of  the 
transaction,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  criticism  was 
taken  in  hand  by  the  inspector  who  accompanied  me. 
Almost  all  the  criticism  was  favorable.  Attention  was 
called  to  the  good  points,  and  numerous  general  sug- 
gestions were  given  on  the  handling  of  customers. 
Finally  the  saleswoman  was  warmly  complimented;  and 
deservedly  so,  for  she  had  really  done  remarkably  well, 
being  thoroughly  self-possessed  throughout,  and  acting 
quite  like  an  experienced  clerk.  One  who  could  pass 
such  a  trying  ordeal  successfully  would  not  be  likely  to 
flinch  before  a  real  customer. 

Much  of  the  work  of  the  foregoing  lesson  might  be 
based  upon  a  little  booklet  issued  by  the  Retail  Mer- 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  83 

chants'  Board  under  the  title:  "What  a  Clerk  Should 
Bear  in  Mind:  A  Memorandum  Book  for  Salesmen  and 
Saleswomen,"  for  the  use  of  their  employees.  This 
pamphlet  of  only  thirty-seven  paragraphs  gives  succinct 
directions  as  regards  the  clerk's  relations  with  and  atti- 
tude toward  customers,  fellow  employees,  and  the  busi- 
ness. 

Arithmetic  holds  a  position  in  the  program  of  studies 
in  the  commercial  continuation  schools  only  slightly  in- 
ferior  to   that   of   the   work    already   de- 
scribed.    According  to  the  official  regula- 

I.  Aim. ' . 

tions,  it  should  occupy  at  least  five  of  the 
total  eighteen  hours.  Through  this,  "the  pupils  should 
learn  to  state  and  to  solve  readily  and  accurately  the 
problems  that  occur  in  commercial  and  civil  life,  and  by 
means  of  selected  exercises  should  come  to  a  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  conditions  peculiar  to  commercial  and 
public  life." 

As  far  as  it  is  consistently  possible,  the  subject  mat- 
ter in  arithmetic  is  to  be  based  upon  the  data  furnished 
by  the  previous  work  in  commercial  sci-  ^  subject 
ence,  which  it  should  clarify  and  strengthen  Matter, 
by  arithmetical  applications.^  But  inasmuch  as  readi- 
ness in  calculation  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
merchant,  one  must  necessarily  adhere  to  a  systematic 
program  of  work.    It  will  consequently  be  necessary  at 

*  See  note,  p.  67. 


84  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

times  to  include  with  the  arithmetic,  brief  essential  ex- 
phmations  that  really  belong  to  the  field  of  commercial 
science.  As  occasion  offers,  the  arithmetic  should  also 
be  taken  up  in  connection  with  bookkeeping.  Relation 
to  practical  life  should  be  the  governing  motive  in  the 
selection  of  material.  Questions  bearing  upon  deter- 
mination of  time  and  principal  in  interest  and  discount, 
difficult  examples  with  common  fractions,  problems  in 
compound  proportion,  unusual  calculations  dealing  with 
the  monetary  standard,  and  the  like  are  therefore  to 
be  eliminated.  Prices  and  other  details  of  the  problems 
must  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  to  real  current  con- 
ditions. 

In  general,  the  topics  treated  in  the  various  classes 
are  as  follows: 

Preparatory  Division:  Review  of  the  funda- 
mental processes,  with  particular  reference  to  the 
multiplication  table  and  short  methods  of  calcula- 
tion; special  drill  upon  examples  drawn  from  com- 
mercial life  involving  the  German  system  of 
weights,  measures,  and  currency. 

Lower  Division:  Application  of  the  funda- 
mental operations,  especially  simple  casting  up  ac- 
counts in  accordance  with  local  conditions;  most 
important  standards  of  weights,  measures,  and  cur- 
rency in  international  trade;  problems  involved  in 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  85 

relations  with  the  post  office  and  the  railroads;  the 
chain  rule  ^   (Kettensatz) . 

Middle  Division:  Percentage,  interest,  discount, 
equation  of  payments;  introduction  to  invoicing. 

Upper  Division  :  Accounts  current ;  stocks ;  com- 
putation of  exchange;  continuation  of  invoicing. 

Outside  this  graduated  mass  of  subject  matter,  time 
will  probably  suffice  for  some  problems  dealing  with 
municipal  and  state  fiscal  administration,  the  tax  sys- 
tem, insurance  legislation,  and  the  like.  If  the  pupil's 
preparation  has  been  good,  some  of  the  subjects  may 
be  advanced  a  grade,  notably  percentage  to  the  lower 
division,  and  accounts  current  to  the  middle  division. 
In  case  warehouse  apprentices  predominate,  or  separate 
classes  are  organized  for  special  lines  of  work,  casting 
up  accounts  in  the  lower  division  and  invoicing  in  the 
middle  and  upper  divisions  need  to  be  treated  more 
extensively.  Banking  will  then  receive  correspondingly 
less  attention.  Where  the  previous  preparation  of  the 
pupils  has  been  defective,  the  whole  program  will  have 
to  be  compressed. 

Not  only  should  the  arithmetic  have  a  general  bear- 
ing upon  the  field  of  commercial  science,  but  the  experi- 
ence of  the  pupils  must  constantly  be  drawn  upon,  and 

some  one  sphere  of  business  must  be  pretty  thoroughly 
1  Sometimes  called  Rees's  Rule  after  the  Dutchman,  K.  F.  de 
Rees,  the  reputed  discoverer. 


so  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

worked  over.  In  general,  mental  arithmetic  should 
occupy  the  first  ten  minutes  of  each  class  in  the  lower 
Method  of  '^^^  middle  divisions.  Use  of  abstract 
Treatment,  numbcrs  is  to  bc  tolcratcd  only  when 
there  is  an  evident  weakness  in  mechanical  operations. 
In  the  preparatory  and  the  lower  division,  problems  of 
every  day  business  life  are  to  have  the  preference.  The 
most  important  short  methods  of  calculation  are  con- 
stantly to  be  practised.  Rapid  calculation  is  of  especial 
moment.  In  this  field,  next  to  casting  up  accounts, 
problems  in  percentage — profit,  loss,  discount — and  in- 
terest are  important.  Problems  with  awkward  numbers 
that  the  business  man  does  not  solve  in  his  head  are  to 
be  avoided.  In  long  calculations,  care  should  be  taken 
to  note  down,  the  intermediate  results. 

For  the  most  part,  problems  in  written  arithmetic 
should  deal  with  concrete  numbers  only.  The  problems 
of  a  single  lesson  should  as  far  as  possible  be  intimately 
related  to  one  another  and  form  one  complete  whole. 
Where  problems  require  the  settlement  of  some  prelim- 
inary questions,  the  pupils  should  be  trained  to  state 
these  for  themselves,  and  they  should  always  approxi- 
mate results  in  advance.  The  ordinary  simplifications 
and  abbreviations  current  in  business  life  are  to  be  em- 
ployed. Problems  dealing  with  municipal  and  state  fis- 
cal administration,  with  the  tax  system,  with  insurance 
legislation  and  the  like,  are  primarily  intended  to  lead 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  87 

the  pupil  in  a  thoroughly  practical  fashion  to  understand 
these  departments  of  civic  life.  Practice  in  the  more 
difficult  problems  relating  to  revenue  has  no  place  in  the 
continuation  school.  The  teacher  is  advised  that  all 
problems  in  the  special  exercise  book  need  not  have  the 
appearance  of  copy-book  work;  it  is  only  necessary  that 
they  be  entered  neatly  and  in  orderly  fashion.  It  may 
be  worth  while  at  times  to  prepare  model  copies  as  sam- 
ples. 

Surprise  may  be  expressed  in  some  quarters  at  the 
necessity  of  so  much  elementary  mathematics  after  a 
thorough  course  in  the  lower  schools,  es- 

4.  Elementary 

pecially  in  a  system  that  is  presumed  to    school  vs.  con- 
tinuation School, 
be  so  efficient  as  the  German  Volksschule. 

In  the  first  place,  one  may  remind  the  reader  of  the 

great  difficulty  encountered  in  every  school  system  of 

obtaining  accurate   work    in   mathematical   operations. 

However  good  the  teaching  may  be,  there  are  always 

pupils  who  seem  almost  incorrigible  from  this  point  of 

view.    Only  by  repeated  drill  and  constant  practice  can 

one  hope  to  overcome  this  failing.     Even  the  German 

elementary    school    has   not    succeeded    in    evolving    a 

scheme  whereby  this  may   be   avoided.     In  the  next 

place,  the  German  lower  school  aims  only  to  give  a  very 

general  training.     In  arithmetic  there  is  little  beyond 

the  fundamental  operations  and  percentage,  with  some 

very  general  applications.     The  commercial  continua- 


88  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

tion  scliool  (as  well  as  its  correlative,  the  industrial  con- 
tinuation school)  is  a  distinctly  specialized  school.  It 
trains  for  a  particular  vocation.  Its  mathematical  prob- 
lems, therefore,  possess  the  peculiar  characteristics  that 
attach  to  the  world  of  business,  involving  processes  that, 
aside  from  employing  the  fundamental  operations  and 
providing  some  general  orientation  with  reference  to  the 
world's  work,  would  be  of  no  value  at  all  to  the  pupil 
who  is  looking  forward  to  an  industrial  occupation.  The 
industrial  worker  on  the  other  hand  gets  his  drill  in  the 
problems  of  his  own  special  school,  and  it  has  frequently 
been  emphasized  that  all  German  life  is  so  highly  spe- 
cialized that  once  an  industrial  worker,  always  an  in- 
dustrial worker,  and  once  a  commercial  employee,  al- 
ways a  commercial  employee.  Hence  what  is  the  utili- 
tarian need  for  the  neophyte  in  one  of  these  fields  to 
have  any  acquaintance  with  the  peculiar  problems  of 
the  other?  The  consensus  of  opinion  among  a  class  of 
boys  who  were  asked  for  my  benefit  wherein  the  arith- 
metic of  the  continuation  school  differed  from  that  of 
the  elementary  school  was  that  the  problems  were  dif- 
ferent, the  work  was  more  accurately  and  more  rapidly 
performed,  and  the  mechanical  operations  were  much 
more  involved.  One  might  also  add  that  short  processes 
are  employed  wherever  possible,  and  a  great  deal  of 
importance  is  attached  to  mental  arithmetic. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  89 

Detailed  lessons  in  arithmetic  will  not  possess  the 
same  interest  as  those  in  commercial  science.  Neverthe- 
less it  may  be  profitable  to  outline  briefly  5.  Typical 
two  or  three  in  order  that  one  may  get  a  Lessons. 
clearer  idea  of  the  character  of  the  problems  and  the 
general  conduct  of  the  lessons.  The  work  of  one  first 
year  class  for  a  part  of  the  hour  was  as  follows: 

(1)  Goods  cost  M  40.  How  much  must  be  charged  in  order  to 
return  8%  profit? 

The  answer  M  43.20  was  quickly   forthcoming,  the 

work  being  entirely  mental,  and  the  analysis  was  given 

thus: 

"One  per  cent,  of  forty  marks  is  forty  pfennigs;  eight  per  cent. 
is  eight  times  forty  pfennigs,  or  three  marks  and  twenty  pfennigs, 
plus  forty  marks  is  forty-three  marks  and  twenty  pfennigs." 

(2)  Goods  cost  M  130.    What  must  they  be  sold  for  to  gain  6%? 

(3)  Goods  are  Usted  at  M  36.  6%  discount  is  allowed.  What 
is  the  selling  price? 

If  the  discoimt  had  been  20%,  how  would  it  have  been  reckoned? 
Ans.     (a)     First  find  10%,  and  then  twice  that;  or 
(b)     20%  is  1/5  of  100%.     So  1/5  of  36. 

(4)  Teacher.  "In  a  stock  company,  the  manager  often  has  a 
percentage  of  the  net  profits.  Thus  he  is  likely  to  take  an  unusual 
interest  in  the  success  of  the  business.  Why?  .  .  ."  This  is  called 
Tantieme.  (This  was  evidently  a  new  expression  to  the  pupUs, 
for  it  was  explaiued  at  some  length.) 

"The  manager  of  a  business  enterprise  received  2%  bonus. 
The  profits  on  a  certain  venture  amounted  to  M  8,550.  How  much 
did  he  receive?"     (Analyzed  as  the  other  on  the  basis  of  1%.) 

(5)  "A  Diisseldorf  merchant  enters  into  business  relations  with 
a  house  in  Hamburg.  The  former  ships  oil  to  the  latter  to  sell. 
The  first  named  is  called  the  consigner  (Kornmittent) ,  and  the  second 
the  consignee  {Kommissionar) .  (These  were  evidently  relatively 
new  terms  to  the  pupils,  for  they  were  explained  and  illustrated 
with  considerable  care.)     Sometimes  one  pays  the  consignee  an 


90  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

extra  commission  {Dclkrcdcrc)  in  return  for  which  he  guarantees 
payment  upon  all  goods  he  sells  on  commission,  wliether  he  himself 
receives  payment  or  not.  (Here  was  another  new  term.)  The  Diis- 
seldorf  merchant  paid  an  extra  commission  of  3%  on  a  shipment 
amounting  to  M  8,400.  Wliat  was  t  lie  amount  of  this  extra  com- 
mission?"    (This  was  also  analyzed  on  the  basis  of  1%.) 

The  subjoined   examples^  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
very  much  abbreviated  form  of  the  written  work: 

(1)  WTiat  is  the  amount  of  the  purchasing     Fr.    9.7842^.1% 
commission  at  3%  on  Fr.  978.42?  Fr.  29.35      k3% 

(2)  What  is  the  amount  of  selling  commiasion     M  43 .  9865  h  1% 
at  1H%  on  M  4,398.65?  M  21.9933^  H% 

M  65.98 

(3)  What  is  the  amount  of  the  extra     £  4.327  ^  1% 

commission  at  11/5%  on  £  432.     £  0.865  ^,1/5% 


13  s.  9  d.?  £5.192  =  £5.  33.  lOd 

(Shillings  and  pence  are  first  reduced  to  the  decimal  fraction 
of  a  £  by  multiplying  the  number  of  shiUings  by  5  and  the 
number  of  pence  by  iYe,  having  a  care  for  the  decinaal  point. 
£432.7) 

(4)     What  is  the  amount  of  the  brokerage  on     M  24.9152  lb  1% 
M  2,491.52  at^%%?  M    4.1525^1/6% 


M  20.76 

(5)  What  is  the  amount  of    kg.    32.76    k  1% 
the  tare  on  3,276  kg.  at     kg.  196.56    k  6% 

6^%?  16.38    kVs%    (=  K%) 

4.095  ^H%    (  =  M  of  J^%) 
kg.  217.035 

(6)  A  firm  goes  into  bankruptcy,  pay-     M      93.1255  k  1%       » 
ing    42%    on    its    habiUtics    of    M     M    558.753  J 
9,312.55.     How  much  did  it  pay?       M  3911.27  ^ 

^  Feller  und  Odermann,  Das  Game  der  kaufmdnnische  Arith- 
metik,  20th  ed.    Pt.  I.,  pp.  121-122. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  91 

(7)     What  is  the  amount  of  a  profit  of  144  %i%  on  $56.25? 
$  0.5625  a  1%       g 
$  5.0625  X  16 
$81.0000  a  144% 

0.4602  a   9/ii%  (  =  1^1  of  5.0625^ 
$81.4602 

A  teacher  who  was  evidently  presenting  the  subject 

of  "chain  rule"   (Kettenregel)   for  the  first  time  began 

with  the  following  problem: 

A  grain  importer  paid  7  s.  6  d.  freight  per  2240  lbs.  What  was 
the  cost  io  marks  per  1000  kg.  of  the  importation,  if  1  lb.  =  0.4536 
kg.,  and  £  1  is  to  be  reckoned  at  M  20 .  45? 

He  first  indicated  by  a  partial  solution  the  extended 

process  and  the  great  amount  of  work  involved,  if  one 

attempted  to  find  the  answer  in  the  old  way.    He  then 

suggested  the  ''chain  rule"  as  offering  a  much  shorter 

and  simpler  means  of  arriving  at  the  same  end.     The 

solution  would  then  look  like  this: 

?  or  X  M  =  (cost)  1000  kg. 
0.4536  kg.  =  1  lb. 

2240  lb.  =  90  d.  (7  s.  6  d.) 
240  d.  =  £  1 

£  1  =  M  20.45 

^  1000  X  90  X  20.45 

^       0.4536  X  2240  X  240 

One  has  only  to  simplify  this  equation  in  order  to  ob- 
tain the  answer. 

"The  result  sought  heads  the  chain  of  equations,  with  the  unknown 
quantity  in  the  left  hand  member.  Each  succeeding  equation  begins 
with  the  same  unit  that  appeared  in  the  second  member  of  the  pre- 
ceding equation.  The  chain  closes  with  the  same  unit  sought  in 
the  first." 


92  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

Little  more  than  appears  in  the  above  was  vouch- 
safed by  way  of  explanation,  nor  was  any  effort  made 
to  show  why  following  this  process  should  give  the  cor- 
rect result.  It  was  decidedly  a  rule  of  thumb  method 
of  procedure  wherein  mnemonics  played  a  very  large 
role.  The  teacher  did  all  the  work  and  most  of  the 
talking.  Another  somewhat  more  difficult  example  was 
worked  through  by  the  teacher,  the  pupils  contributing 
slightly  in  the  mechanical  operations,  and  the  hour  was 
over. 

For  most  American  business  men,  a  device  of  this  sort 
possesses  absolutely  no  value,  but  for  the  German,  in 
such  close  proximity  to  foreign  peoples  with  different 
standards  of  weights,  measures,  and  currency  from  his 
own,  one  can  readily  see  the  immense  value  of  such  a 
method  of  computation  in  certain  lines  of  trade.  Note 
the  great  advantage  in  the  solution  of  examples  like  the 
following: 

"If  a  piece  of  cloth,  373^  yds.  in  length  costs  £  3.  13  s.  6  d.  in 
London,  what  is  the  price  in  marks  per  meter,  12  yds.  =  11  m., 
and  £  1  being  reckoned  at  M  20.45?"  » 


"A  BerUn  merchant  owes  a  bill  in  Paris.  Should  he  remit  in 
French  banknotes,  which  he  can  buy  in  BerHn  at  81 .  50  or  in  Russian 
rouble  notes?  The  latter  can  be  bought  in  Berlin  for  215.90,  and 
they  will  bring  265 .  10  in  Paris. "  ^ 

*  Feller  uxd  Odermann,  op.  cit.,  p.  103. 

*  Droll,  Karl,  Sammlung  von  Aufgaben  fiir  das  kaufmannische 
Mechnen,  I.,  p.  34. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  93 

Equation  of  payments  in  the  middle  division,  and  ac- 
counts current  in  the  upper  division,  judging  by  the  em- 
phasis put  upon  them  in  the  classes  observed,  are  the 
most  important  topics  of  the  last  two  years. 

Bookkeeping  occupies  normally  three  weekly  periods, 
one  in  the  middle  division  and  two  in  the  upper  division, 
or  one-sixth  of  the  total  course.    "The  pu- 
pils should  come  to  understand  the  systems 

I.  Aim. 

of  single  and  double  entry  bookkeeping, 
and  should  acquire  accuracy  in  the  technique  of  mak- 
ing the  proper  entries  and  of  closing  a  simple  set  of 
books  for  themselves."  Thus  runs  the  official  statement 
of  the  aim  of  the  course.  Although  single  entry  would 
ordinarily  occupy  one  hour  per  week  in  the  second  year, 
and  double  entry  two  hours  in  the  third  year,  this  par- 
ticular distribution  of  time  is  not  obligatory. 

For  single  entry  bookkeeping,  the  transactions  of  a 
small  shopkeeper  may  well  be  taken  as  the  basis.^ 
Household  accounts  offer  a  fitting  intro-  ^  subject  ' 
duction.  In  double  entry  it  is  of  prime  Matter.  ^ 
importance  for  the  pupils  to  understand  and  to  employ 
the  basic  ideas,  to  grasp  clearly  the  significance  and  the 
relationship  of  the  various  accounts,  and  to  be  able  to 
balance  and  close  them  accurately.  To  this  end,  it  is 
much  better  to  begin  with  simple  transactions  in  which 
the  various  difficulties  appear  progressively,  and  later  on 

*  See  note,  p.  67. 


94  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

to  undertake  a  continuous,  though  not  too  extensive, 
series  of  entries,  which  reproduce  actual  conditions  as 
closely  as  possible.  In  every  instance,  the  pupil  must 
be  able  to  justify  his  entry.  The  transactions  of  a  ware- 
house business  or  a  manufactory  will  provide  the  ma- 
terial for  the  so-called  American  system  of  bookkeep- 
ing. The  statutes  governing  the  merchant's  accounts 
and  tax  declarations  are  to  be  discussed  at  appropriate 
times.    Neatness  and  accuracy  must  be  emphasized. 

A  particularly  striking  feature  in  the  application  of 

this  subject  matter  is  the  relatively  large  number  of 

extremely  simple  transactions  taken  up  in 

3.  Method. 

class.  Most  of  our  schools  strive  to  intro- 
duce the  pupils  to  a  regular  set  of  books  at  the  earlies-t 
possible  moment.  The  German  lower  commercial 
schools,  on  the  other  hand,  defer  this  until  relatively 
late.  In  fact,  in  this  type  of  school  I  have  never  found 
the  pupils  handling  a  set  of  books  independently.  Even 
when  they  reach  the  point  where  they  have  to  make  the 
entries  of  a  month's  imaginary  business,  it  is  all  class 
work  where  the  individual  is  not  thrown  upon  his  own 
resources.  In  other  words,  each  separate  entry  is  dis- 
cussed in  the  class,  the  proper  book  to  use,  the  form 
to  be  employed,  and  the  exact  wording  of  the  same  are 
indicated.  Not  until  then  does  the  pupil  do  any  writ- 
ing in  his  book.  All  the  work  is  "controlled"  in  this 
fashion,  and  the  chance  of  a  mistake  is  reduced  to  a 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  95 

minimum.  This  procedure  is  due  to  a  variety  of  rea- 
sons. In  the  first  place,  it  is  quite  characteristic  of 
German  methods  in  general,  for  they  are  based  upon 
the  assumption  that  prevention  is  better  than  correc- 
tion, that  in  the  long  run  time  and  trouble  are  saved, 
the  danger  of  making  erroneous  entries  is  minimized, 
and  proper  methods  of  work  are  inculcated,  if  the  pupil 
is  never  allowed  to  take  a  wrong  step.  He  thus  learns 
by  his  successes,  not  by  his  failures.  When  the  ac- 
counts are  balanced,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  series  of 
business  transactions,  there  is  no  anxious  searching  for 
erroneous  entries.  There  are  none.  Again,  one  must 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  this  course  is  not  intended 
to  turn  out  expert  accountants  or  even  finished  book- 
keepers. The  daily  work  during  the  three  years  of  ap- 
prenticeship is  constantly  supplementing  the  more  or 
less  theoretical  work  of  the  school.  This,  in  turn,  ex- 
plains how  so  much  can  be  accomplished  in  such  a  rela- 
tively short  time.  One  hundred  and  twenty  hours,  one 
hour  per  week  for  one  year,  and  two  hours  per  week  for 
another  with  no  home  work,  would  avail  little  if  not 
paralleled  by  the  three  years  of  apprenticeship  behind 
the  counter  or  in  the  office.  Furthermore,  the  school 
aims  not  only  to  teach  large  principles,  but  to  bring  be- 
fore the  pupils  all  the  concrete  situations  of  a  normal 
business.  In  order  to  cover  these  in  the  limited  time 
at  his  disposal,  the  teacher  must  necessarily  devote  him- 


90  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

self  to  many  scries  with  a  very  limited  number  of  trans- 
actions in  each,  rather  than  to  a  few  extended  and  in- 
volved series.  Inasmuch  as  the  accounts  are  closed  and 
a  balance  is  struck  after  each  series,  the  German  boy 
has  a  relatively  large  amount  of  practice  in  closing 
books,  an  extremely  important  operation  in  every  busi- 
ness, even  for  the  small  merchant.  As  has  so  frequently 
been  pointed  out,  everything  in  Germany  is  under  the 
control,  direction,  or  supervision  of  government  authori- 
ties. This  is  especially  significant  in  all  business  enter- 
prises, for  only  thus  can  the  government  keep  in  touch 
with  the  progress  of  affairs,  the  investments,  and  the 
profits  for  purposes  of  taxation.  The  Commercial  Code 
contains  very  stringent  and  very  specific  regulations  that 
apply  to  the  small  as  well  as  the  large  merchant.^  Every 
merchant  must  keep  books  which  show  the  exact  trans- 
actions of  his  business  and  the  state  of  his  resources. 
He  must  keep  a  transcript  of  every  letter  sent  out,  made 
either  by  hand  or  by  mechanical  means,  and  likewise 
the  original  of  every  communication  received  must  be 
preserved.  When  he  begins  business  he  must  open  a  set 
of  books  which  show  his  cash  capital  as  well  as  other 
resources,  his  assets,  and  his  liabilities.  He  must  close 
his  books  at  least  once  every  twelve  months,  taking  an 
inventory  and  striking  a  balance.  While  the  books 
themselves  may  be  kept  in  any  living  language,  the  bal- 

^  Handehgesetzbuch  fur  das  deutsche  Reich,  §§38-47. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  97 

ance  sheet  must  be  expressed  in  the  standard  currency 
of  the  Empire.  Both  the  inventory  and  the  balance 
sheet  must  be  signed  by  the  merchant,  or  in  the  case  of 
a  partnership,  by  all  the  partners.  All  books  must  be 
kept  for  ten  years  from  the  date  of  the  last  entry.  These 
and  other  regulations  of  the  code  form  an  integral  part 
of  the  course  in  bookkeeping.  Such  brief  extracts  sug- 
gest something  of  the  significance  of  bookkeeping  in 
German  mercantile  life,  and  show  why  it  is  important 
even  for  the  pupil  in  the  continuation  school,  inasmuch 
as  he  may  later  on  have  a  modest  business  of  his  own. 
Civics  and  economic  geography  share  one  hour  per 
week  for  each  of  the  three  years.  Of  the  two,  civics  is 
evidently  looked  upon  as  the  more  im- 
portant, for  in  one  of  the  suggested  pro- 

I.  Aim. 

grams,  economic  geography  is  entirely 
lacking,  and  in  case  the  course  is  only  four  hours  per 
week,  provision  must  be  made  for  covering  the  civics  in 
conjunction  with  commercial  science.  "Civics  has  for 
its  problem  to  bring  about  an  appreciation  of  the  re- 
lationship of  the  individual  and  his  occupation  to  the 
common  weal,  in  family,  business,  and  school,  in  com- 
munity, state,  and  nation;  to  show  the  evolution  of  the 
essence  of  the  most  important  adjustments  of  public 
life;  to  assure  respect  for  the  constitution  and  the  law; 
to  foster  love  for  home,  country,  and  God;  and  to  es- 
tablish aims  for  cheerful  cooperation  in  the  state." 


98  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

The  subject  matter  is  intimately  related  to  commer- 
cial science,  arithmetic,  and  bookkeeping,  and  particu- 
3.  Subject  ^^^^y  ^°  economic  geography.  Results  de- 
Matter,  rived  from  this  correlation  with  other  sub- 
jects are  to  be  brought  together  in  the  last  year  of  the 
course,  when  should  also  be  discussed  the  most  import- 
ant provisions  of  the  constitution  of  the  government, 
local,  national,  and  imperial,  that  deal  with  the  law, 
with  the  army,  and  with  the  navy.^ 

An  understanding  of  real  life,  not  mere  book  knowl- 
edge, is  to  be  sought.  Hence  the  instruction  must  re- 
late to  the  immediate  environment,  and  illustrations  are 
to  be  chosen  from  the  pupils'  own  circle  of  experience. 
The  duties  and  the  privileges  arising  from  the  relation- 
ship between  the  vocation  and  the  social  whole  are  par- 
ticularly to  be  discussed.  The  ideas  gained  here  may 
readily  be  extended  to  the  consideration  of  similar  con- 
ditions from  the  state  point  of  view.  Discussion  of 
fundamental  economic  and  legal  conceptions  must  be 
ruled  out,  for  the  continuation  school  does  not  concern 
itself  with  any  systematic  presentation  of  these  relation- 
ships. Reference  may  profitably  be  made  to  the  evolu- 
tion of  certain  regulations  and  to  the  achievements  of 
great  leaders.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the 
young  man  realize  that  he  will  later  be  called  upon  to 
cooperate  in  public  affairs,  and  he  must  assume  his 
^  See  note,  p.  67. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  99 

share  of  the  responsibility  for  their  proper  conduct.  Ob- 
viously the  intrusion  of  party  politics  is  strenuously  to 
be  avoided.  Gymnastics  and  games  are  of  great  value 
for  civic  instruction  if  they  lead  by  right  means  to  the 
development  of  courage,  self-control,  and  voluntary  sub- 
ordination. 

Like  so  much  of  the  other  instruction  in  the  continu- 
ation school,  the  work  in  civics  is  likely  to  be  largely 
memoriter,    acquainting    the    young    men 

3.  Application. 

with  governmental  conditions  as  they  are, 
the  regulations  they  must  observe,  the  laws  they  must 
obey.  That  this  is  something  of  a  task  must  be  evident 
from  the  statement  of  a  recent  writer  ^  in  citing  the  fig- 
ures published  by  a  German  prison  official  after  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  period  from  1882  to  1910,  which  showed 
that  of  every  person  living  in  Germany  at  this  latter 
date,  one  in  twelve  had  been  convicted  of  some  offense. 
"This  does  not  mean,"  Mr.  Collier  adds,  "that  the  Ger- 
mans are  criminal  or  disorderly,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
it  shows  how  absurdly  petty  are  the  violations  of  the 
law  punished  by  fine  or  imprisonment,"  Such  details 
necessarily  sink  into  the  background  in  considering  the 
larger  questions  of  organization  and  functioning  of  the 
national  government,  but  even  here  the  instruction  is 
largely  an  exposition  of  the  things  as  they  are,  rather 

*  Collier,  Price,  Germany  and  the  Germans.  Scribner's,  March, 
1913,  p.  289.^ 


100  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

than  the  more  fundamental  question  of  how  they  came 
to  be  what  they  are.  Whether  intentionally  or  not,  real 
thought-provoking  questions  arc  conspicuous  by  their 
absence,  but  this  is  all  a  part  of  the  general  plan  to  de- 
velop intelligent,  contented  citizens.  It  was  a  great  re- 
lief to  find  one  unusually  able  teacher,  who,  in  consider- 
ing the  question  of  commercial  treaties,  put  international 
affairs  largely  on  the  basis  of  personal  relations.  "What 
does  the  other  nation  mean  for  Germany  commercially, 
and  what  does  Germany  mean  for  it?" — a  practical,  if 
a  plainly  utilitarian,  point  of  view.  This  developed 
naturally  into  the  treaty-making  power  in  Germany,  and 
then  included  a  differentiation  of  imperial  and  state 
authority. 

Economic  geography  is  closely  linked  with  civics,  and 
usually  occupies  one  hour  per  week  for  each  of  the  first 

two  years  of  the   course.     Its  particular 
Economic 
Geography:    problem  is  "to  acquaint  the  embryo  mer- 

1.  Aim.  chant  with  the  economic  relations  existing 
between  Germany  and  the  chief  nations  with  which  it 
carries  on  trade,  and  thus  to  broaden  his  range  of 
ideas." 

Everything    naturally    centers    about    the    economic 
geography  of  Germany — its  economic  divisions  and  chief 
2.  Subject      products,  the  distribution  of  the  most  im- 
^^"^''       portant  branches  of  commerce  and  indus- 
try, the  significance  and  situation  of  its  trade  routes 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  101 

and  trade  centers,  the  extent  of  its  forests  and  hus- 
bandry. Next  in  importance  for  consideration  are  the 
German  colonies,  and  the  principal  countries  from  Ger- 
many's commercial  point  of  view,  commodities  and 
trade  routes,  whereby  foreign  relations  may  develop  to 
contribute  to  the  enhancement  of  the  commerce  and  in- 
dustry of  the  home  district.^ 

Time  fails  for  any  comprehensive  treatment  of  the 
subject.  It  must  therefore  be  limited  to  the  selection 
of   real   illustrations  which   are   allied   as 

3.  Application. 

closely  as  possible  with  the  home  district 
and  its  economic  relations.  It  is  especially  important 
that  the  pupils  understand  the  map  and  learn  to  use  it. 
The  causal  relations  between  soil  and  agriculture  are  to 
be  brought  out,  as  well  as  the  geographical  basis  of  the 
life  of  the  state.  For  trade  geography,  the  railway  guide 
offers  an  admirable  starting  point.  The  most  important 
commodities  of  German  and  of  world  commerce  are  to 
be  indicated.  Where  there  are  special  classes  for  the 
various  branches  of  business,  it  is  profitable  to  test  the 
most  important  commodities  by  simple  experiments  with 
a  view  to  determining  their  source,  production,  and  use, 
but  the  time  for  this  should  preferably  be  found  out- 
side the  regular  six  hours  per  week.  This  last  is  merely 
an  attempt  to  reach  the  same  end  that  the  schools  of 
South  Germany  do  in  their  study  of  commodities  of 
*  See  note,  p.  67. 


102  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

commerce.  A  suggested  distribution  of  time  for  the 
eighty  lessons  of  the  continuation  school  course  runs  as 
follows:  ^ 

(1)  the  local  economic  area,  10  lessons; 

(2)  economic  regions  of  Germany,  30  lessons; 

(3)  general  survey  of  the  country  as  a  whole,  10  lessons; 

(4)  German  colonies,  10  lessons; 

(5)  other  European  countries,  10  lessons; 

(6)  non-European  countries,  10  lessons. 

While  this  offers  but  a  superficial  view  of  the  field 
covered,  all  things  considered,  it  probably  gives  as  satis- 
factory a  partition  of  the  time  as  could  well  be  devised. 
The  relatively  small  amount  of  time  allotted  to  non- 
German  lands  is  more  apparent  than  real,  for  in  dis- 
cussing Germany's  manufactures,  her  dependence  upon 
foreign  countries  for  raw  materials  will  be  clearly 
brought  out.  This  leads  naturally  to  some  considera- 
tion of  the  source  of  these  materials,  so  that  the  pupil's 
attention  will  frequently  be  directed  to  foreign  lands. 
Then  again  the  subject  matter  of  the  continuation  school 
does  not  concern  itself  with  other  nations  except  so  far 
as  they  are  necessary  to  Germany's  welfare,  either  as 
sources  from  which  to  draw  supplies,  or  as  providing  a 
market  for  German  goods,  or  to  the  extent  that  they  are 
commercial  rivals. 

In  view  of  the  extent  of  the  subject  matter  to  be  cov- 
ered and  the  brief  time  available,  one  can  hardly  be 

1  Grtjndschied,  in  Knork,  Der  kaufmdnnische  Unterricht,  p.  409. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  103 

surprised  to  find  the  work  in  geography  little  more  than 
a  bare  catalogue  of  facts.  Indeed  such  was  the  impres- 
sion left  upon  me  by  the  geography  lessons 

.4.  Method. 

that  I  heard,  whether  they  were  discuss- 
ing the  North  German  plain  or  describing  the  Ger- 
man colonies.  Topics  like  the  following,  all  of  which 
were  treated  during  a  single  hour,  in  no  wise  seem  to 
carry  out  the  spirit  of  the  official  regulations  which 
appear  to  suggest  the  use  of  the  causal  idea:  (1)  char- 
acteristics of  the  North  German  plain  district,  (a)  po- 
litically, (b)  physically;  (2)  its  commercial  connec- 
tions; (3)  Hamburg  as  a  commercial  port;  (4)  Bremen 
as  a  commercial  port;  (5)  another  important  harbor  on 
the  North  Sea  (Emden) ;  (6)  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal; 
(7)  coal  lands  of  Northwest  Germany;  (8)  Berlin;  (9) 
physical  geography  of  Silesia;  (10)  its  economic  situ- 
ation; (11)  its  agricultural  resources;  (12)  the  upper 
Silesian  plateau,  (a)  mineral  wealth,  (b)  comparison 
with  Westphalia;  (13)  manufactures  of  the  district; 
(14)  the  railroad  lines  from  North  Germany  (nothing 
more  than  enumerating  the  principal  trunk  lines  ema- 
nating from  Berlin,  naming  the  chief  towns  reached,  and 
tracing  these  routes  on  the  map).  Aside  from  the  fact 
that  the  pupils  in  this  class  did  nearly  all  the  talking, 
this  particular  lesson  was  quite  typical  of  many  that  I 
heard.  It  should  be  noted  again  that  the  chief  purpose  of 
this  grade  of  school  is  to  communicate  facts  rather  than 


104  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

to  stimulate  thought.  From  this  point  of  view  the 
geography  teaching  is  highly  successful,  although  one 
sometimes  wonders  if  the  pupils  are  not  likely  to  be 
overwhelmed  by  the  mass  of  details  presented. 

Stenography  may  appear  in  the  program  of  studies  of 
the  compulsory  continuation  school,  although  it  is  not 
frequently  found,  at  least  in  Prussia.  At 
best  it  may  have  only  one  hour  per  week 
for  the  first  two  years,  so  one  can  hardly  expect  it  to 
produce  very  striking  results.  About  all  that  can  be 
accomplished  is  to  acquaint  the  pupils  with  the  various 
characters  and  combinations  employed  and  teach  them 
to  write  and  to  read  these  with  more  or  less  difficulty. 
It  is  frankly  admitted  that  if  any  speed  is  to  be  de- 
veloped the  pupils  must  attend  the  optional  evening 
courses,  which  are  usually  to  be  found  in  all  the  larger 
towns.  Even  in  girls'  commercial  schools  that  do  not 
belong  in  the  class  of  continuation  schools,  where  they 
spend  three  hours  per  week  on  stenography,  a  speed  of 
180  syllables  per  minute  is  certainly  well  above  the  aver- 
age attained.  Inasmuch  as  these  schools  are  not  in- 
tended to  turn  out  skilled  operatives,  it  is  perfectly  evi- 
dent that  much  of  the  proficiency  required  must  be 
gained  in  business  just  as  is  true  in  the  case  of  other 
phases  of  one's  business  experience.  There  are  two  dis- 
tinct systems  of  stenography  in  general  use  in  Germany. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  105 

The  one  more  in  vogue  in  the  particular  district  deter- 
mines the  system  followed  in  the  schools. 

Only  rarely  in  North  Germany  does  one  find  type- 
writing in  the  compulsory  continuation  school.  The  offi- 
cial regulations  make  no  provision  for  it 
unless  the  course  has  more  than  six  hours 
per  week,  but  it  is  offered  very  frequently  in  optional 
courses  given  during  the  evening.  The  amount  of  pro- 
ficiency acquired  here  is  about  on  a  par  with  that  in 
stenography.  What  more  can  be  expected  of  an  acquire- 
ment where  mere  routine  practice  plays  such  a  conspicu- 
ous role,  when  at  most  only  forty  hours  are  devoted  to 
it?  One  may  find  the  three  or  four  leading  American 
makes  of  machines  and  a  like  number  of  German  models 
in  a  single  class  room.  This  diversity  of  equipment  is 
undoubtedly  a  question  of  finance.  The  community 
buys  some  machines,  and  the  typewriter  dealer  will  often 
loan  others.  Inasmuch  as  the  school  authorities  can 
hardly  look  a  gift  horse  in  the  mouth,  the  result  cannot 
fail  to  be  disconcerting  to  the  teacher  who  is  obliged  to 
use  visible  and  non-visible  writers,  single  keyboards  and 
double  keyboards,  new  models  and  old  models,  in  the 
same  class  at  the  same  time.  At  all  events  there  is  uni- 
versal insistence  upon  the  touch  system  of  writing.  In 
the  course  of  the  year  the  pupils  do  little  more  than 
learn  the  positions  of  the  letters  and  the  correct  fingering 
of  the  keyboard.     Anything  in  the  way  of  real  pro- 


lOG  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

ficiency,  just  as  in  the  <'ase  of  the  stcnograi)hy,  must  be 
gained  by  attendance  upon  voluntary  evening  classes, 
in  addition,  or  else  in  the  olficc  of  the  employer. 

Although   the  oQicial   regulations  grant  communities 
the  same  privileges,  with  reference  to  establishing  con- 
tinuation schools  for  girls  engaged  in  com- 
Girls'  Schools.  •   ,         ,  .      ,  ,  . 

mcrcial  work,  as  for  boys,  this  opportunity 

has  not  been  so  generally  embraced  in  the  case  of  the 
gentler  sex.  Figures  for  1910  show  only  eight  inde- 
pendent girls'  schools  in  Prussia  with  compulsory  attend- 
ance, as  opposed  to  two  hundred  and  sixty-nine  for  boys, 
and  five  others  where  attendance  is  optional.  Besides, 
there  are  thirty-six  schools  that  have  separate  classes 
for  girls,  and  twenty-seven  others  where  the  two  sexes 
are  admitted  together.  Official  figures  are  not  readily 
available  to  enable  one  to  estimate  accurately  the  rela- 
tive opportunities  for  boys  and  girls  in  this  type  of 
school,  but  approximately  the  number  of  girls'  schools 
is  one-sixth  that  of  the  boys',  with  a  school  population 
about  one-seventh  as  large.  At  first  sight,  then,  it  is 
not  surprising  to  find  that  the  programs  of  the  girls' 
schools  have  been  largely  dominated  by  those  of  the  boys' 
schools,  but,  when  one  considers  the  ultra-specialization 
of  each  type  of  educational  institution  in  Germany,  it 
does  give  rise  to  some  wonder,  particularly  when  un- 
official statistics  for  all  Germany  show  that  from  fifty 
to  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  young  women  in  business  life 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  107 

are  never  called  upon  to  do  office  work.  Conditions  in 
Prussian  commercial  continuation  schools  are  doubtless 
even  less  favorable  than  this.  Indeed,  some  communi- 
ties will  show  as  few  as  four  or  six  per  cent,  of  the  girls 
engaging  in  office  work. 

As  the  girls'  schools  become  more  numerous  a  more 
specialized  and  more  suitable  program  of  studies  will 
doubtless  be  evolved  for  them.  Even  now  the  regula- 
tions admit  of  some  slight  differentiation,  but  mani- 
festly this  is  only  possible  where  there  are  separate 
schools,  or  at  least  separate  classes  for  the  two  sexes.^ 

The  modifications  thus  far  recognized  cover  two 
points  only:  the  substitution  of  a  study  of  "life  re- 
sponsibilities" (Lebenskunde) ,  for  the  civics  of  the  boys' 
course,  and  the  introduction  of  household  economy. 
"Life  responsibilities"  in  this  sense  treat  primarily  wo- 
man's position  in  the  family  and  the  home,  in  vocation 
and  community.  Household  economy  is  recognized  as 
essential,  even  for  girls  who  are  engaged  in  commercial 
life.  As  far  as  possible  this  instruction  should  find  a 
place  outside  the  six  prescribed  hours  of  the  continuation 
school  course,  but,  in  case  this  is  not  done,  it  may  even 
be  accepted  as  a  part  of  the  compulsory  instruction. 
What  other  subjects  or  parts  of  subjects  are  to  be  dis- 
placed, however,  are  not  indicated.  Unfortunately 
household  economy  instruction  in  the  continuation  school 

^  See  note,  p.  67. 


108  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

as  yet  exists  largely  on  paper.  Some  thoughtful  men 
interested  in  commercial  teaching  object  to  the  compul- 
sory school  for  girls  altogether  on  the  ground  that  it 
attempts  to  prepare  them  for  something  quite  remote 
from  their  real  life  interest;  that  few  of  them  will  con- 
tinue in  commercial  work  until  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
and  fewer  still  until  thirty;  and  that  probably  nine- 
tenths  of  them  will  eventually  be  married  and  have 
homes  of  their  own.  In  the  eyes  of  these  men  the  girls' 
continuation  schools  might  more  profitably  devote  the 
greater  part  of  their  time  to  household  economy,  house- 
wifery, or  some  similar  subject. 

One  must  confess  that  girls'  commercial  continua- 
tion schools  in  Germany  have  reached  a  far  less  stable 
state  of  equilibrium  than  have  the  corresponding 
boys'  schools.  Their  numbers  are  growing  slowly, 
the  introduction  of  boys'  schools  paving  the  way, 
as  it  were,  for  the  subsequent  establishment  of  girls' 
schools,  but  this  is  all  attended  with  more  or  less 
uncertainty.  Their  absence  has  heretofore  been  par- 
tially supplied  by  a  so-called  girls'  commercial  school,  a 
type  of  school  found  in  some  of  the  larger  towns  and 
intended  for  girls  who  have  had  only  the  elementary 
school  training,  but  who  propose  to  become  stenogra- 
phers, typewriters,  and  office  clerks.  Aside  from  stenog- 
raphy, typewriting,  and  gymnastics,  the  subjects  of  in- 
struction do  not  differ  from  those  of  the  ordinary  boys' 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS 


109 


continuation  school.  Sometimes  the  course  is  one  year 
in  length,  and  sometimes  two  years,  the  former  being 
the  more  frequent,  but,  in  any  event,  it  takes  up  the 
girl's  full  time,  and  occupies  from  fifteen  to  thirty 
periods  per  week,  according  to  the  town.^  It  thus  pre- 
pares for  a  business  career,  and  is  not  a  mere  adjunct 
of  an  apprenticeship  period. 

As  far  as  topics  covered  and  method  of  treatment 
are  concerned  this  school  does  not  differ  materially 
from    the    ordinary    continuation    school,    for    it    is 

*  Girls'  Commercial  School  Courses — Dortmund.* 


Periods  per  Week 

Subjects 

One-Year 
Course 

Two- Year  Course 

I 

II 

Commercial  theory,  with  Ger- 
man and  Commercial  papers 

Commercial  arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Economic  geography,  with 
Commodities  of  commerce. 

Civics 

Penmanship 

Typewriting 

Stenography 

Gymnastics  and  Games 

5 
4 
3 

2 
1 
2 
4 
3 
2 

4 
3 
2 

'2 
3 

2 
2 

4 
2 
2 

2 
1 

'3 
2 

2 

26 

18 

18 

^  Stddtische    kaufmdnnische     Unterrichtsanstalten    zu    Dortmund, 
1912-1913,  pp.  10-11. 


110  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

based  upon  substantially  the  same  previous  instruc- 
tion, and  is  fitting  its  pupils  for  a  similar  kind 
of  oflicc  work.  Even  these  young  women  are  not 
expected  to  be  expert  operators  at  the  conclusion  of  their 
school  course.  They  will  probably  be  able  to  take  dic- 
tation at  the  rate  of  160  syllables  per  minute,  and  to 
do  typewriting  at  a  fair  rate  of  speed,  as  a  result  of 
five  hours  per  week  spent  on  these  two  subjects  for  one 
year.  Further  proficiency  must  come  through  real  of- 
fice experience.  The  major  part  of  them  practically 
never  do  anything  but  stenography  and  typewriting, 
for  which  they  will  receive  from  thirty  to  eighty  marks 
per  month,  depending  upon  the  intelligence  and  skill  of 
the  individual,  as  shown  in  her  school  course,  and  the 
oflBce  where  she  may  find  a  situation.  The  city  of  Bar- 
men, for  instance,  in  its  municipal  departments  pays 
these  girls  seventy  marks  per  month  at  the  outset. 
Graduates  of  this  type  of  commercial  course  may  even- 
tually look  forward  to  receiving  one  hundred,  and  per- 
haps one  hundred  and  fifty  marks,  per  month. 

This  one-year  commercial  course  for  girls  suggests  a 
similar  arrangement  for  boys,  which  is,  however,  found 

^     „  but  rarely.    It  nevertheless  touches  a  fun- 

One-Year  vs.  *^ 

Three-Year    damental  problem,  namely:   whether  it  is 

oiirse.       better  to  have    a    course    extending    over 

three  years  for  a  few  periods  per  week,  or  over  one  year 

for  full  time.    Under  the  existing  Prussian  regulations  of 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  111 

the  optional  continuation  school  it  is  quite  possible  for 
a  community  to  do  as  it  pleases  in  the  matter.  In  South 
Germany,  where  the  obligatory  continuation  school  is 
firmly  established,  the  community  has  no  choice.  It  is 
significant  to  note,  however,  that  the  one-year  scheme 
has  attracted  few  adherents  among  the  school  men,  al- 
though one  finds  at  times  a  considerable  demand  for  it 
among  the  merchants.  In  Dortmund,  which,  by  the 
way,  has  both  the  one-year  commercial  course  and  the 
obligatory  continuation  school, '^  the  director  is  a  strong 
partisan  of  the  one-year  scheme.  He  believes  in  it  thor- 
oughly, and  asserts  that  much  more  can  be  accom- 
plished here  than  in  the  continuation  school,  for  the 
former  has  twenty-six  hours  per  week  for  one  year, 
while  the  pupils  in  the  latter  have  only  six  hours  per 
week  for  three  years,  or  eighteen  hours  in  all.  Further- 
more, in  the  continuation  school,  meeting  as  it  does  only 
twice  a  week,  the  teachers  are  obliged  to  spend  much 
time  in  review,  and  they  can  consequently  make  only 
relatively  slow  progress,  while  there  is  the  additional 
handicap  of  the  time  lost  in  getting  under  way  in  school 
after  the  decidedly  different  working  environment  of 
the  business  house.  Furthermore,  the  continuation 
school  pupils  are  called  upon  for  no  home  tasks,  whereas 
in  the  one-year  course  the  pupils  must  put  in  at  least 

^  It  should  be  noted  that  the  compulsory  attendance  regulation 
is  suspended  in  the  case  of  the  pupils  of  the  oue-year  course. 


112  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

two  or  three  hours  per  day  outside.  In  reality,  then, 
the  latter  pupils  spend  somewhat  more  than  forty  week 
hours  on  their  course,  while  the  former  devote  only 
eighteen  at  the  maximum. 

At  first  sight  this  seems  an  unanswerable  brief  in 
favor  of  the  shorter,  more  intensive  course.  On  the 
other  hand,  looking  at  the  question  purely  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  information  gained,  and  granting  the 
truth  of  the  assertions  above,  there  are  two  factors  to 
be  considered.  In  the  first  place  the  subjects  of  the  one- 
year  course  must  be  treated  from  a  more  or  less  scholas- 
tic point  of  view.  They  concern  matters  that  are  not 
yet  within  the  practical  experience  of  the  pupils,  while, 
in  the  continuation  school,  they  are  closely  allied  with 
the  everyday  life  of  the  participants.  In  fact,  the  worth 
of  the  latter  course  is  largely  measured  in  terms  of  its 
approximation  to  the  actual  conditions  of  the  business 
world.  In  one  instance  it  is  a  case  of  theory,  intensi- 
fied, if  you  please,  as  a  preparation  for  practice;  in  the 
other,  theory  and  practice  go  hand  in  hand,  the  every- 
day work  of  the  continuation  school  apprentice  provid- 
ing a  field  of  application  for  driving  home  the  lessons 
of  the  school.  It  is  hardly  fair,  therefore,  to  compare 
the  forty  or  more  hours  of  the  one-year  course  with  the 
eighteen  hours  of  the  three-year  course;  but  one  might 
rather  set  twenty-six  hours  over  against  eighteen  hours 
plus  some  indeterminable  amount  of  time  from  the  daily 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  113 

business  wherein  the  boy  finds  problems  in  his  employ- 
er's office  that  supplement  the  instruction  of  the  school. 
In  the  second  place,  will  the  problems  of  the  one-year 
course  mean  as  much  to  the  boy  of  fifteen  as  those  of  the 
three-year  course  to  the  boy  of  seventeen?  This  is  a 
matter  that  is  not  easily  determined.  But  two  years  at 
this  juncture  in  a  boy's  life  probably  count  for  more 
with  him  than  a  corresponding  period  at  any  other  time. 
His  physical  development  is  accompanied  by  an  intellec- 
tual and  social  development,  by  a  widening  sympathy 
and  a  broadening  of  interest,  by  an  increasing  ability  to 
appreciate  the  significance  of  the  world  of  affairs  and 
its  problems  that  must  certainly  be  reckoned  with. 
These  last  unquestionably  develop  much  more  rapidly 
with  the  youth  who  is  beginning  to  earn  his  own  living 
than  with  one  whose  world  view  is  dependent  upon  the 
perspective  of  the  schoolroom. 

Again,  in  view  of  the  significance  of  the  subjective 
evolution  which  characterizes  the  whole  period  of  adol- 
escence, may  not  the  continuation  school,  even  with 
only  six  hours  per  week,  furnish  a  salutary  conservative 
influence,  whose  worth  cannot  be  easily  evaluated?  In 
the  case  of  the  one-year  course,  the  boy  leaves  school 
at  fifteen  years  of  age  to  make  his  way  in  the  world. 
He  is  thenceforth  free  from  all  external  restraint  save 
that  exercised  by  the  home  and  the  body  civic  and  po- 
litic, just  at  a  time  when  he  has  need  of  every  possible 


114  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

restraining  influence.  The  school,  if  only  by  reason  of 
the  formal  observance  of  its  regulations,  is  in  this  way  a 
factor  for  good  that  most  compulsory  education  re- 
quirements completely  disregard.  The  continuation 
school  holds  the  pupil  within  the  sphere  of  its  influence 
for  at  least  two  years  longer,  and,  aside  from  the  point 
just  raised,  possesses  invaluable  opportunities  for  in- 
fluencing his  reading,  for  directing  his  thinking,  and  so 
of  affecting  his  whole  intellectual  and  spiritual  develop- 
ment. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  present  a  brief  tabular  com- 
parison (found  on  the  following  page)  of  the  continua- 
tion school  course  and  the  commercial  school  course  in 
Dortmund,  where  the  former  has  been  in  operation  since 
1905  and  the  latter  since  1910. 

In  the  commercial  school  commercial  science  is  called 
commercial  theory,  and  arithmetic  goes  under  the  more 
descriptive  title  of  commercial  arithmetic.  Economic 
geography  is  there  grouped  with  commodities  of  com- 
merce, while  civics  stands  by  itself,  whereas,  in  the  con- 
tinuation school,  economic  geography  and  civics  are 
grouped  together.  Penmanship,  typewriting,  stenogra- 
phy, gj^mnastics,  and  games  are  found  only  in  the  com- 
mercial school  program,  but  these  occupy  eight  hours, 
and  exactly  make  up  the  time  difference  between  the  two 
courses.  A  comparison  of  the  topics  of  instruction  of 
the  two  courses  reveals  only  minor  differences,  and  one 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS 


115 


CONTINTJATION   SCHOOL   ANT)    COMMERCIAL   ScHOOL  CoURSE — 

Dortmund  i 


Subjects 


Compulsory 
Continuation 

School 

(Three  Years) 

Total  Week 

Hours 


Commercial 

School 
(One  Year) 
Week  Hours 


Commercial  science,*  with  German 
and  Commercial  papers 

Arithmetic' 

Bookkeeping 

Economic  geography  and  Civics 

Economic  geography,  with  Commodi- 
ties of  commerce 

Civics 

Penmanship 

Typewriting 

Stenography 

Gymnastics  and  Games 


has  reason  to  believe  that  the  method  of  treatment  is  in 
both  cases  essentially  the  same.  Thus,  while  there  is 
no  desire  to  minimize  the  worth  of  the  commercial 
school  course,  it  must  be  apparent  that  it  differs  from 
the  continuation  school  course  largely  by  the  presence 
of  a  few  merely  formal  subjects  of  instruction,  and  that 
the  real  content  values  of  the  two  are  probably  not 
widely  different. 

In  1912-1913  the   commercial  school  had  33  pupils, 
as  against  613  in  the  compulsory  continuation  school, 

1  Stddtische    kaufmdnnische     Unterrichtsanstalien    zu    Dortmund' 
1912-1913,  pp.  10,  14. 

2  "Commercial  theory,"  in  the  commercial  school. 
'"Commercial  arithmetic,"  in  the  commercial  school. 


I  U)  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

figures  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  former 
has  not  succeeded  in  gaining  the  popular  approval.  Un- 
doubtedly the  question  of  fees  is  an  important  factor, 
for  one  hundred  marks  is  a  considerable  sum  for  a  Ger- 
man parent  of  the  lower  classes  to  pay  out,  especially 
when  he  can  send  his  son  to  the  continuation  school, 
where  the  boy's  employer  will  have  to  pay  the  fees. 
Inasmuch  as  this  sum  will  be  more  than  returned  before 
the  three  years  are  up  in  increased  wages,  this  can  hardly 
account  altogether  for  the  great  discrepancy  in  the  en- 
rollment. 

Many  merchants,  not  only  in  Dortmund,  but  in  other 
towns  as  well,  are  heartily  in  favor  of  this  one-year  com- 
mercial school,  as  against  the  continuation 

■«,r    \^ ?      school,   partly    because  they   are  thus  re- 
Merchants.  )  f       J  J 

lieved  from  the  necessity  of  bearing  the 
expense  of  their  employees'  schooling,  and  partly  because 
they  are  then  absolutely  in  control  of  the  boys'  time 
throughout  the  working  day.  The  first  of  these  reasons 
is  more  apparent  than  real.  It  is  true  that  the  fees  in  the 
commercial  school  must  be  borne  by  the  parents,  so  that 
the  employer  will  save  twenty  or  thirty  marks  per  year, 
for  three  years,  at  most  a  total  of  ninety  marks.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  apprenticeship  period  of  the  commercial 
school  boy  is  completed  in  two  years,  so  that  for  the 
next  year  the  merchant  must  pay  him  considerably  more 
in  wages  than  he  would  have  had  to  pay  the  apprentice 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  117 

in  his  third  year.  Thus,  what  he  saves  in  one  place,  he 
probably  loses  in  another.  It  is  quite  likely,  however, 
that  he  gets  better  service  for  the  money  expended.  At 
all  events  he  does  not  have  to  arrange  his  work  so  as  to 
allow  for  regular  absence  from  business  at  fixed  periods 
during  the  week — a  requirement  which  must  be  some- 
what irksome,  to  say  the  least.  This  is  undoubtedly  a 
real  source  of  grievance  on  the  part  of  the  merchants, 
for,  however  much  the  school  authorities  may  endeavor 
to  mitigate  the  annoyance,  it  works  hardship  with  some. 
At  the  same  time  one  is  moved  to  ask  to  what  extent 
the  convenience  of  a  relatively  small  proportion  of  the 
community  should  be  allowed  to  hazard  the  general 
good.  The  influence  of  the  central  authorities,  as  evi- 
denced by  the  continuation  school  program,  is  cast  on 
the  side  of  the  general  good.  They  do  not  recognize  the 
short,  intensive  course  as  being  the  equivalent  of  the 
longer  continuation  school  course. 


CHAPTER  IV 

LOWER  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS    (3) 
MUNICH   COMMERCIAL    CONTINUATION   SCHOOL 

Lower  commercial  schools  in  the  other  German  states 

present  such  a  variety  of  conditions  as  to  render  any 

attempt  at  generalization  difficult  indeed. 

_.       .         Each  of  the  twelve  states  where  a  compul- 
Prussia.  ^ 

sory  attendance  law  is  universally  in 
operation  regulates  its  own  school  affairs,  and  is  not  at 
all  subservient  to  the  example  set  by  Prussia.  On  the 
whole,  then,  it  seems  better  to  devote  some  attention  to 
describing  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  Munich 
school,  which  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  one  of  the  bet- 
ter South  German  commercial  continuation  schools,  and 
so  of  all  to  be  found  in  the  empire.  The  content  of 
courses  and  the  methods  of  instruction  may  be  some- 
what cursorily  treated,  for  much  of  what  has  already 
been  said  of  Prussia  will  apply  with  equal  force  to  con- 
ditions there. 

This  Munich  school  has  a  home  of   its  own,   over- 
looking the  main  market-place  of  the  city.    The  build- 

118 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  119 

ing,  now  old  and  considerably  out  of  date  (it  has  been 

in  use  for  over  forty  years),  is  not  well  adapted  to 

school   purposes,   but   the   authorities   are 

looking  forward  to  a  new  building  before       ^  ^^'^, 
°  °  School. 

many  years. 

There  are  five  departments,  to  wit:  the  compulsory 
continuation   course;    elective    courses   in   stenography, 

typewriting,     and     foreign    languages;     a 

Courses, 
course  for  apprentices  who  hold  the  certifi- 
cate for  the  one-year  volunteer  service  in  the  army;  a 
continuation  course  for  merchants'  clerks  who  are  be- 
yond the  age  limits  of  the  compulsory  attendance  law; 
and  a  course  for  retail  merchants.^ 

The  control  of  the  school  is  vested  in  a  board  of  gov- 
ernment, consisting  of  a  representative  of  the  city 
authorities  as  chairman,  the  director  of  the 

school,  and  three  business  men  of  the  city,  -, 

'  -^ '  Government. 

one  of  these  latter  being  president  of  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce.  In  this  way  the  interests  of 
the  city  are  safeguarded,  intelligent  professional  control 
is  guaranteed,  and  the  cooperation  of  the  merchant  body 
of  the  city  is  encouraged  and  assured.  It  is  thoroughly 
characteristic  of  the  German  tendency  to  divorce  edu- 
cation from  politics  and  put  school  control  in  the  hands 

^  Most  of  the  following  material  is  taken  from  the  annual  report 
of  the  school  (Slddlische  Kaufmannschule,  5  Jahresberichl,  1910- 
1911)  and  observations  made  during  a  visit  to  the  school  in  April, 
1912. 


120 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


Attendance. 


of  an  interested  and  competent  body.  Such  a  board  of 
government  must  command  the  confidence  of  the  practi- 
cal business  man,  and  assure  him  that  the  school  course 
will  be  kept  alive  and  in  close  contact  with  actual  busi- 
ness conditions. 

Attendance  is  compulsory  for  all  boys  under  eighteen 
who  are  employed  in  any  commercial  business,  unless 
they  possess  the  certificate  for  the  one-year 
volunteer  service  in  the  army.  Exception 
is  also  made  in  the  case  of  warehouse  employees  and 
others  who  are  not  occupied  with  the  purely  commercial 
side  of  the  business.  This  attendance  obligation  is  in 
force  until  the  course  is  finished,  or  until  the  comple- 
tion of  the  pupil's  eighteenth  year.  The  following  table 
shows  the  attendance  at  the  close  of  each  of  the  last 
six  years: 

MUNICH  COMMERCIAL  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL 
Attendance 


Year 

Apprentices.  . 
Clerks 


1906-'07 
815 

1907-'08 
971 

1908-'09 
992 

1909-'10 
1053 
31 

1910-'ll 
1453 
23 

1911-'12 
)  1600 
j  apprx. 


The  course  lasts  three  years,  with  annual  promotions, 
but,  in  case  a  pupil  is  not  prepared  to  take  the  work, 

he  may  be  required  to  enter  a  pre- 
w^°k^H°  °     paratory    class.      The    following    are    the 

subjects  of  instruction,  with  the  weekly 
time    allotment: 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS 


121 


MUNICH  COMMERCIAL  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL 

Program  of  Week  Hours 


Subjects 


Prep. 
Class 


I 

Class 


II 

Class 


III 

Class 


Obligatory: 

Religion 

Arithmetic 

Theory  of  exchange 

Bookkeeping  and  accounting . 
Commercial  correspondence. . 

Commercial  geography 

Commodities  of  commerce. . . 

Training  for  citizenship 

Commercial  regulations 

Penmanship 


Elective : 

Stenography 

TypewTiting 

Foreign  languages. 


2 

21 

2 


2 

21 

2 


2 

21 

2 


1  For  one-half  year. 

The  course  for  one-year  volunteers,  organized  for  the 
first  time  in  the  school  year  1910-1911,  consists  of  book- 
keeping and  correspondence,  2  hours;  arithmetic  and 
theory  of  exchange,  2  hours;  commercial  theory,  1  hour, 
and  civil  government,  1  hour.  The  continuation  course 
for  older  boys  confines  itself  chiefly  to  bookkeeping,  1% 
hours  per  week,  while  the  merchants'  course  has  book- 
keeping and  correspondence,  2  hours ;  commercial  theory, 
1  hour,  and  commodities  of  commerce,  1  hour. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  boys  who  attend 
this  school  have  already  chosen  their  occupations  in  life. 


122  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

Consequently  their  vocational  training  here  will  all  be 
concentrated  upon  a  relatively  narrow  field.  In  the 
industrial  schools  the  large  numbers  make 
J°™°  ^  it  possible  to  arrange  the  work  so  that  the 
bakers  will  be  together,  the  confectioners 
will  be  by  themselves,  and  so  on  through  the  long  list  of 
specific  occupations.  The  commercial  pupils  are  not  suffi- 
ciently numerous  to  carry  out  this  plan  in  detail,  although 
Munich  provides  for  more  differentiation  than  most  of 
the  other  cities.  To  this  end  the  boys  are  all  divided  into 
four  large  groups,  the  first  consisting  of  those  working 
in  banks,  in  the  transportation  or  insurance  business, 
and  in  the  bookselling  trade;  the  second  including  those 
engaged  in  any  business  dealing  with  food  products  and 
supplies;  the  third  comprising  all  those  employed  in  the 
dry-goods  or  any  branch  of  the  clothing  business;  and 
the  last  composed  of  those  handling  glass,  porcelain, 
metal  goods,  building  material,  fuel,  and  other  wares 
from  the  inorganic  world.  During  the  year  1911-1912 
each  of  these  groups  enrolled  about  one-fourth  of  the 
pupils  in  the  school. 

The  ordinary  academic  year  runs  from  September  15 

to  July  14,  although  the  "clerks'  "  course  begins  Octo- 

School        ber  1  and  ends  May  31,  while  the  "mer- 

Sessions.  chants' "  classes  are  the  shortest  of  all, 
covering  the  five  months  from  November  to  March  in- 
clusive.   Everybody  enjoys  a  long  Christmas  vacation, 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  123 

December  15  to  January  2.  Furthermore,  out  of  defer- 
ence to  the  week-end  business  of  the  merchants,  there 
are  no  classes  on  Saturday  afternoons,  and  Monday 
morning  is  likewise  free  from  all  class  work. 

Every  effort  is  made  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible 
with  the  ordinary  working  day,  but  at  the  same  time  no 
one  of  the  compulsory  attendance  classes  is  allowed  to 
encroach  upon  the  pupils'  leisure  time,  a  reasonable  dis- 
tribution of  instruction  is  insisted  upon,  and  each  indi- 
vidual pupil  must  come  one  morning  and  one  afternoon. 
The  sections  are  arranged  as  follows,  the  eight  hours  of 
the  week  being  distributed  in  two  groups: 

Monday,  2 — 6  p.m.  and  Thursday,  8 — 12  a.m. 
Tuesday,  2 — 6  p.m.  and  Friday,  8 — 12  a.m. 
Wednesday,  2 — 6  p.m.  and  Saturday,  8 — 12  a.m. 
Tuesday,  8 — 12  a.m.  and  Thursday,  2 — 6  p.m. 
Wednesday,  8 — 12  a.m.  and  Friday,  2 — 6  p.m. 

The  elective  classes  in  stenography,  typewriting,  and 
modern  languages  are  held  in  the  evening,  from  seven 
until  nine  o'clock. 

Municipal  ownership  of  the  street  railways,  which  is 
so  general  throughout  Germany,  enables  the  city  to  en- 
courage school  attendance  very  materially.^  .. 

°  J  J  Cooperation  of 

In  going  to  and  from  school  pupils  travel    Municipal 
on  a  special  ticket,  which  is  sold  at  the      ^'"^^^^   P- 
remarkably  low  price  of  two  marks  for  the  half  year. 
The  government  of  the  district  in  which  Munich  is 


124  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

situated  and  the  city  itself  share  equally  in  the  sup- 
port of  the  school.    The  expenses  for  the  year  1910-1911 
amounted    to    82,430   marks    for    salaries, 
Expenses  and   g200  marks  for  supplies,  and  80,000  marks 

Fees.  rr-  ;  ; 

for  changes  in  the  building.  On  the  basis 
of  1476  pupils  who  completed  the  year's  work  this  gives 
a  per  capita  cost  for  instruction  of  about  62  marks,  a 
figure  considerably  higher  than  we  found  in  Prussia. 

For  the  compulsory  courses  in  the  continuation  school, 
as  well  as  for  the  stenography,  no  fees  are  charged,  while 
typewriting  costs  2  marks,  and  foreign  languages  cost 
10  marks  per  course.  The  fees  for  the  one-year  volun- 
teers' course  amount  to  30  marks  for  the  year,  and  for 
the  clerks'  and  the  merchants'  courses  the  charge  is  reck- 
oned on  the  basis  of  2  marks  for  each  week  hour.  The 
maximum  cost  to  the  pupil  would  thus  in  no  instance 
exceed  $7.50  per  year. 

As  in  the  other  school  programs  of  Germany  religion 
occupies   a  prominent  place.     It   is    so   arranged  that 
g  ,  .         ,    everybody    receives   instruction   one   hour 
Instruction,    per  week  in  each  of  the  first  two  years 
I.  Religion.      fYQY^i  an  accredited  teacher  of  the  confes- 
sion to  which  his  family  belongs.    Four  Catholics,  one 
Protestant,  and  one  Jewish  teacher,   all  of  whom  are 
clerics,  figure  in  the  teaching  force  for  this  especial  pur- 
pose.    The  course  thus   follows  the  prescriptions   laid 
down  by  the  various  ecclesiastical  authorities  in  ques- 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  123 

tion,  and  is  practically  beyond  the  control  or  even  su- 
pervision of  the  school  authorities.  However  distasteful 
such  a  situation  might  be  to  us,  it  is  accepted  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course  there,  for  it  is  merely  following  the  practice 
that  prevails  generally  throughout  the  elementary 
schools  in  Germany. 

Arithmetic,  naturally  a  fundamental  subject  in  com- 
mercial schools,  is  invariably  treated  from  the  practical 
point  of  view,  with  all  purely  theoretical 

.  2.  Arithmetic. 

discussions  rigidly  excluded.  The  sole 
basis  for  the  presence  of  any  topic  or  process  in  this 
program  of  studies  is  its  ability  to  function  in  the  every- 
day business  world.  While  the  printed  regulations  seem 
to  impose  a  uniform  course  upon  all,  the  language  of 
the  problems  of  each  group  is  distinct  from  that  of  every 
other  group.  They  all  review  the  four  fundamental  op- 
erations, but  always  in  the  concrete.  Hence,  the  par- 
ticular problem  of  one  group  would  not  occur  in  another 
group,  although  the  arithmetical  principle  involved 
would  be  exactly  the  same.  Percentage  and  interest  oc- 
cupy a  very  large  place  among  the  topics  treated.  In 
this  work  the  method  of  aliquot  parts  is  very  generally 
employed,  and  much  importance  is  attached  to  mental 
calculation.  Some  of  the  problems  in  interest  that  the 
German  boy  solves  readily  and  accurately  in  his  head 
would  fairly  stagger  the  American  youngster.  Every 
step  is  taken  deliberately,  with   the  analysis  of  each 


126  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

operation  stated  explicitly  before  proceeding  with  the 
next  step.  The  result  is  that  nobody  can  go  very  far 
wrong  without  being  checked  up.  The  underlying  idea 
is  to  prevent  errors  being  made,  rather  than  to  correct 
them  after  they  have  been  made.  Considerable  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  foreign  weights,  measures,  and  monetary 
systems,  especially  those  in  vogue  in  England,  the  United 
States,  France,  Italy,  and  Russia.  The  comparative 
values  of  the  various  monetary  standards,  both  commer- 
cially and  intrinsically,  present  some  very  interesting 
problems  for  the  last  year  boys. 

"Theory  of  exchange"  is  rather  a  misnomer  for  the 
German  Wechsellehre,  for  the  subject  contains  consider- 

3.  Theory  of      ^^^^  more  of  practice  than  of  theory.    The 

Exchange.  ^^^  hour  per  wcck  assigned  to  this  subject 
in  the  second  year  of  the  course  is  devoted  to  the  devel- 
opment of  exchange  in  general,  and  to  the  genesis  of 
the  Imperial  German  Regulations  regarding  bills  of  ex- 
change. It  goes  without  saying  that  these  regulations 
are  explained  in  detail,  and  considerable  attention  is 
devoted  to  practical  hypothetical  cases  based  thereon. 
Indeed,  from  the  painstaking  definition  of  terms,  and  the 
care  displayed  in  drawing  up  bills  of  exchange,  together 
with  all  the  legal  technicalities  involved,  one  might  al- 
most imagine  that  the  teachers  were  training  young  law- 
yers instead  of  young  business  men. 

Aside  from  the  arithmetic,  no  subject  of  the  three 


LOWER  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  127 

years'  course  receives  so  much  attention  as  bookkeeping 
and  accounting.  The  first  two  years  are  spent  upon 
single  entry  bookkeeping,  while  the  two  4.  Bookkeeping 
hours  per  week  in  the  third  year  are  given  and  Accounting, 
over  to  double  entry,  and  the  so-called  "American  sys- 
tem." The  pupils  are  accustomed  from  the  first  to  the  use 
of  the  various  books  in  the  particular  system  employed, 
the  work  being  so  selected  that  all  the  ordinarily  possi- 
ble transactions  of  business  conduct  shall  occur  several 
times  throughout  the  progress  of  the  work.  Each  pupil 
has  a  complete  set  of  books,  and  is  required  to  open 
and  close  them  frequently  during  the  course.  In  one 
class  that  I  visited  in  another  South  German  city,  each 
pupil  received  a  mimeographed  list  of  thirteen  transac- 
tions purporting  to  cover  the  business  of  one  month. 
During  the  two  hour  and  a  half  lesson  an  entire  set  of 
books  was  opened  and  the  entries  were  completed.  Ac- 
cording to  directions  given  at  the  close  of  the  class 
period,  the  books  were  to  be  closed  next  time  and  the 
balance  sheet  made  out.  This  seems  like  hurried  and 
superficial  work,  but  the  principles  involved  were  so 
varied  that  anybody  who  could  do  this  correctly  would 
be  quite  able  to  keep  a  set  of  books  for  any  ordinary 
business.  Here,  as  everywhere  else,  the  individuals  in 
the  class  moved  almost  as  a  unit.  Each  transaction  was 
discussed,  somebody  was  called  upon  to  suggest  the 
proper  entry,  and  then  each  one  in  the  class  made  it. 


128  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

Tlio  wiiolc  process  was  almost  military  in  its  nature, 
with  each  one  going  his  own  way,  but  always  in  pur- 
suance of  some  direction.  The  fact  that  the  pupils  them- 
selves, rather  than  the  teacher,  indicated  the  step  to 
be  taken  saved  the  process  from  being  purely  mechani- 
cal. The  teacher  was  trying  to  inculcate  the  habit  of 
making  correct  entries:  first,  by  assuring  himself  that 
the  pupils  knew  what  they  were  going  to  do  and  why; 
and,  second,  by  never  allowing  them  to  make  a  mistake 
in  the  doing.  In  this  particular  instance  the  military 
illusion  was  still  further  enhanced  by  the  teacher's  fre- 
quent orders:     "Take  pens!"    "Lay  aside  pens!" 

Business  correspondence  is  very  closely  connected  with 

bookkeeping  and  the  theory  of  exchange.     The  whole 

5  Business  Cor-  P^rpose  of  the  iustruction  is  to  enable  the 

respondence.  p^ipils  to  Write  courtcously,  corrcctly,  and 
clearly,  and  to  teach  them  to  eschew  the  reprehensible 
commercial  jargon  that  is  so  prevalent.  They  are  prac- 
ticed to  the  utmost  nicety  in  making  out  all  sorts  of  or- 
ders and  receipts,  in  filling  out  the  multifarious  blanks 
connected  with  the  shipment  of  goods  by  parcel  post, 
express,  or  freight,  and  in  carrying  on  the  correspond- 
ence relative  thereto.  The  number  and  variety  of  blanks 
that  the  German  business  man  must  be  familiar  with 
which  are  all  to  be  filled  out  correctly,  to  the  dotting  of 
an  "i"  and  the  crossing  of  a  "t,"  is  positively  astound- 
ing, and  with  these  business  apprentices  nothing  may 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  129 

be  left  to  chance.  There  is  a  rule  for  everything,  and 
everything  must  be  done  according  to  rule.  Then,  too, 
there  are  the  various  sorts  of  letters  covering  purely 
commercial  transactions,  bids,  and  acceptances;  letters 
relating  to  commercial  balances;  letters  and  advertise- 
ments in  seeking  a  position;  and  letters  to  civil  and  po- 
litical officials.  It  would  be  difficult  to  suggest  a  con- 
tingency of  business  which  would  not  be  anticipated  in 
this  course,  and  for  which  the  pupil  would  not  be  fore- 
armed with  a  formula. 

Commercial  geography,  as  taught  here,  is  real  geogra- 
phy of  commerce.  It  ranks  with  arithmetic,  business 
correspondence,  and  citizenship  as  the  g.  commercial 
most  consistently  followed  subject  of  the  Geography. 
course.  For  the  first  year  the  German  Empire  provides 
the  material  for  study.  Land  and  water  area,  climate, 
agricultural  resources,  population,  political  divisions, 
important  seaports,  foreign  shipping  and  inland  com- 
merce, important  railways,  and  industry  cover  most  of 
the  topics  treated.  Although  the  acquisition  of  facts 
occupies  a  large  place,  it  is  all  accompanied  with  ex- 
tremely good  didactic  work  on  the  teacher's  part.  One 
lesson  that  I  heard  in  this  school  was  a  remarkably  in- 
spiring and  instructive  discussion  on  the  progress  of 
German  industrial  development,  especially  during  the 
last  sixty  years.  The  only  text  in  the  hands  of  the  pu- 
pils was  one  of  those  incomparable  German  commercial 


130  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

atlases,  containing  fewer  than  fifty  pages.  Other 
European  countries  occupy  the  time  during  the  second 
year,  and  tlic  remainder  of  the  world  during  the  third 
year.  At  this  latter  period  the  work  of  the  German 
consular  service  abroad  forms  an  important  topic  of 
consideration. 

Commodities   of  commerce    (Warenkunde)   is  closely 

allied  with  the  preceding  subject  everywhere,  except  in 

7.  Commodities  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  bank-trausportation-insur- 

of  Commerce.  ^^^^  group.^  Here  the  topics  are  confined 
to  what  one  might  call  the  "raw  materials"  of  this 
group:  creation  and  organization  of  banks  and  business 
enterprises,  the  stock  exchange,  fairs,'  and  various 
phases  of  the  insurance  and  transportation  problems. 
In  the  other  groups  the  raw  materials  are  carefully  stud- 
ied, their  habitat,  cultivation,  transportation,  prepara- 
tion for  the  market;  their  purity,  or  genuineness;  their 
adulteration,  or  imitation;  their  use,  packing,  and  pre- 
serving. Utilization  of  the  collections  in  the  school 
museum  and  visits  to  local  manufactories  figure  largely 
in  this  study. 

One  notable  feature  about  this  type  of  school  all  over 
the  country  is  the  importance  of  the  school  museum. 
No  better  evidence  of  the  interest  of  the  local  merchants 

1  Cf.  p.  122. 

*  The  mediaeval  fair  still  survives  in  the  important  towns  of  Ger- 
many, and  has  still  to  be  reckoned  with  both  from  the  financing 
and  the  distributing  point  of  view. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  131 

and  manufacturers  could  be  desired  than  to  glance  at 
the  extent  of  the  numerous  collections  in  the  school  mu- 
seums and  to  note  the  sources  whence  they  came.  For 
example,  the  commercial  school  at  Mannheim  has  a 
magnificent  collection  of  raw  tobacco  of  all  grades  from 
the  chief  sources  of  supply  the  world  over.  This  col- 
lection, valued  at  10,000  marks,  was  the  gift  of  one 
business  man  of  the  town. 

Training  for  citizenship  (Lebens-  und  Bilrgerkunde) 
is  a  favorite  topic  of  Dr.  Kerschensteiner,  the  head  of 
the  Munich  system  of  schools,  and  its  g.  Training  for 
presence  among  the  subjects  of  instruction  citizenship, 
here  is  due  to  his  interest  and  enthusiasm.  His  ideas 
along  this  line  first  took  printed  form  as  a  part  of  his 
essay,  Training  of  Youth  for  Citizenship  during  the 
Years  between  Fourteen  and  Twenty,  which  received  the 
prize  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Erfurt,  in 
1902.  This  general  subject,  which  continues  throughout 
the  course,  aims  to  lay  down  large  principles  of  conduct, 
illustrated  by  numerous  specific  practical  examples,  that 
shall  render  the  individual  a  sound,  sane,  and  helpful 
member  of  the  community.  In  the  first  year  the  topics 
concern  the  individual's  attitude  at  home,  in  school,  on 
the  street,  and  in  society,  toward  employer,  helpmate, 
and  vocation;  the  apprentice,  accepting  employment, 
his  indenture  and  responsibility,  the  proper  use  of 
his   time    in   preparation    for   his    calling;    the    devel- 


132  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

opmcnt  and  care  of  his  body.  The  second  year 
is  occupied  with  the  development  of  commerce 
in  Germany,  a  brief  history  of  the  railroads,  ship- 
ping, postal,  telegraph,  and  telephone  services.  The 
third  year  treats  of  one's  dependence  upon  economic 
forces:  trade  unions,  commercial  associations,  business 
organizations;  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  merchant  in 
the  political  world ;  and  the  commerce  court.  One  needs 
only  to  glance  over  the  foregoing  to  see  how  extremely 
practical  and  valuable  is  the  mass  of  information  con- 
tained therein,  and  how  essential  it  is  in  a  country  like 
Germany,  w^here  almost  every  movement  the  individual 
makes  from  the  beginning  of  his  life  until  the  end  is 
either  sanctioned  or  forbidden  by  some  official  regula- 
tion. The  inexorableness  of  the  natural  law  finds  ade- 
quate supplementing  in  the  equal  inexorableness  of  the 
German  statute  law.  Woe  be  it  unto  the  individual  who 
is  ignorant  thereof! 

In    the   third   year    all    legal    regulations   which    the 

pupil  has  encountered  throughout  his  course  that  the 

9.  Commercial    merchant    should    know,    whether    in    the 

Regulations,  general  conduct  of  business,  in  accounting, 
in  the  postal  and  telegraph  service,  in  the  shipment  of 
goods,  in  payment  of  duties,  or  in  remittance  of  funds, 
are  reviewed  and  brought  into  some  systematic  order. 
This  is  a  resume  and  a  codification,  as  it  were,  of  the 
essential  legal  facts  of  the  course. 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  133 

One  hour  per  week  in  each  of  the  first  two  years 
devoted  to  principles  of  penmanship  reaches  beyond  the 
domain  of  mere  pen  manipulation,  al-  ^o.  Penmanship 
though  much  stress  is  laid  upon  the  ac-  ^^^  Reading, 
quisition  of  a  legible  hand,  both  in  the  German  and  the 
Latin  script.  Not  only  is  an  opportunity  afforded  for 
correcting  an  otherwise  faulty  spelling,  but  the  pupils 
are  introduced  to  the  current  abbreviations  of  the  com- 
mercial world,  as  well  as  to  the  common  foreign  words 
with  which  they  should  be  acquainted.  Pursuant  to 
the  general  practice  in  the  best  continental  schools,  all 
these  points  are  constantly  and  consistently  kept  before 
the  attention  of  the  pupils,  whatever  may  be  the  par- 
ticular subject  of  study  under  consideration.  Although 
no  specific  time  is  set  apart  for  reading,  every  effort  is 
made  to  develop  the  moral  and  general  culture  of  the 
pupils,  as  well  as  to  inculcate  in  them  a  taste  for  good 
literature. 

Stenography,  typewriting,  and  modern  languages,  the 
three  elective  subjects,  are  all  taken  up  from  a  narrowly 
utilitarian  point  of  view.  In  this  particu-  „  Elective 
lar  school  English  and  French  are  the  only  Subjects, 
foreign  languages  offered.  Literature  does  not  figure 
at  all,  and  grammar  is  reduced  to  the  least  possible 
amount.  Some  opportunity  is  afforded  for  training  in 
the  spoken  language,  but  familiarity  with  the  commer- 
cial vocabulary  of  the  particular  group  to  which  the 


131  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

pupil  may   be  attached,  and  ability  to  handle  simple 

correspondence  in  the  foreign  language  receive  the  chief 

emphasis. 

At  first  sight  the  Munich  program  appears  to  differ 

very  widely  from  the  Prussian  official  regulations,  but  a 

more  careful  study  will  bring  to  light  more 
Munich  and  >=>  ^ 

Prussian  or  less  conformity.  Neither  religion  nor 
Programs,  penmanship  figures  at  all  in  the  ordinary 
Prussian  program.  Penmanship  is  found,  however,  in 
the  preparatory  division,  and  is  required  as  an  additional 
subject  for  poor  writers  in  all  divisions.  The  question 
of  religious  instruction  is  touched  upon  in  a  Prussian 
joint  ministerial  order,  issued  in  1897  by  the  Minister 
for  Spiritual,  Educational,  and  Medical  Affairs  (the  for- 
mer official  title  of  the  head  of  the  educational  system) , 
the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  and  the  Minister  of  Com- 
merce and  Industry.  This  order  recognizes  the  desira- 
bility of  religious  instruction  for  the  industrial  and  agri- 
cultural continuation  schools.  While  religion  cannot 
appear  on  the  program  of  studies,  the  local  authorities 
are  urged  to  put  the  schoolrooms  at  the  disposal  of  the 
clergy  of  the  two  recognized  churches  at  the  close  of 
the  regular  classes  for  voluntary  religious  teaching  and 
lectures.  As  the  commercial  continuation  schools  were 
founded  they  became  automatically  subject  to  this  or- 
der.    In  Bavaria,  however,  the  Catholic  influence  has 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  135 

been  strong  enough  to  have  religious  instruction  in  the 
continuation  schools  made  a  part  of  the  required  work. 
Commercial  science,  with  German,  and  correspond- 
ence, seven  hours  in  the  Prussian  schools,  covers  sub- 
stantially the  same  ground  as  theory  of  exchange,  com- 
mercial correspondence,  commodities  of  commerce,  and 
commercial  regulations,  six  hours,  in  Munich.  This  dif- 
ference is  not  significant.  Arithmetic  and  bookkeeping 
receive  in  Prussia  five  and  three  hours  per  week,  respec- 
tively, as  against  four  hours  for  each  in  Munich.  The 
totals  are  the  same,  and  the  contents  of  the  courses  are 
not  materially  different.  Economic  geography  and  civ- 
ics, three  hours  in  Prussia,  must  be  set  over  against 
commercial  geography  and  training  for  citizenship,  three 
hours  each,  in  Munich.  The  three  hours  gained  here, 
together  with  the  two  hours  for  religious  instruction, 
make  up  five  of  the  six  hours  that  represent  the  differ- 
ence in  the  total  lengths  of  the  courses,  eighteen  hours 
in  Prussia,  and  twenty-four  hours  in  Munich.  This 
suggests  the  possibility  of  a  considerably  greater  civic 
and  ethical  influence  in  the  southern  country  than  in 
the  northern,  a  possibility  which  I  am  inclined  to  be- 
lieve is  actually  realized  in  practice.  The  Prussian  pro- 
gram is  strongly  typical  of  the  growing  materialism  that 
seems  to  be  gripping  the  country  more  and  more  power- 
fully, while  the  Munich  program  strives  to  retain  some- 
thing of  the  old  idealistic  spirit.     Stenography,  type- 


136  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

writing,  and  modern  languages,  even  as  electives,  and, 

even  though   treated  from  a  narrowly  practical  point 

of  view,  give  evidence  of  a  belief  in  the  desirability  of 

a  wider  range  of  subject  matter  than  that  offered  by 

the  Prussian  course.    The  latter  represents  substantially 

the  absolutely  irreducible  minimum  that  may  be  called 

a  commercial  course  fitting  for  business  life.    The  former 

does  all   that,  and  aims  to  orientate  its  pupils,  even 

though  to  a  modest  degree,  somewhat  outside  the  very 

narrow  field  of  their  vocational  interests. 

Regular  teachers,  to  the  number  of  twelve,  handle  the 

major  part  of  the  instruction   in  the   Munich   school, 

^     ^.         although  there  are  two  Volksschule  teach- 
Teaching 

Force  and  ers  assigned  here  for  special  classes,  in 
asses.  addition  to  the  six  teachers  for  religion, 
sixteen  teachers  appointed  for  stenography,  five  for 
French,  and  four  for  English,  some  from  the  Volks- 
schulen  and  some  from  the  secondary  schools.  In  1910- 
1911  there  were  forty-six  classes  in  the  school,  the  largest 
having  thirty-seven  and  the  smallest  twenty-three  pu- 
pils, with  an  average  of  thirty-two. 

If  one  is  justified  in  making  any  generalizations  after 

a  few  days'  visit  to  the  school  and  its  classes,  one  must 

School       acknowledge   the   evident    success   of   the 

Success,  work  as  a  whole.  Mr.  Hans  Baier,  the 
director  since  1906,  is  undoubtedly  responsible  for  a 
large  measure  of  this.    Happiness  and  contentment  are 


LOWER   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  137 

reflected  in  the  faces  of  the  pupils,  and  the  seriousness 
of  their  purpose  is  everywhere  apparent.  Yet  one  must 
not  hastily  conclude  that  the  German  boy  is  inherently 
any  more  serious  than  are  our  own  boys.  Economic 
pressure  and  the  disastrous  results  from  failure  "to 
make  good"  in  school  are  enough  to  sober  any  young- 
ster who  fully  realizes  their  significance.  With  the 
German  these  incentives  are  as  difficult  to  lose  as  one's 
shadow,  for  home,  school,  and  society  are  constantly 
forcing  them  in  upon  his  consciousness  with  ever  in- 
creasing relentlessness. 

Such  are  the  organization  and  the  work  of  one  of  the 
German  commercial  continuation  schools,  typical,  per- 
haps, of  the  best  to  be  found  in  that  coun-    ^ 

^  '  German  vs. 

try,  yet  representative  of  them  all,  showing  American 
a  phase  of  educational  activity  whose  °°  *  *°°^* 
worth  we  in  the  United  States  are  but  now  beginning  to 
appreciate,  yet  one  of  which  we  must  take  cognizance, 
unless  we  are  willing  to  become  hopelessly  distanced  in 
the  race  for  commercial  supremacy  in  the  markets  of  the 
world.  Most  of  our  states  are  supinely  contented  if  they 
have  on  their  statute  books  a  perfunctorily  enforced 
compulsory  school  attendance  law  that  keeps  their  chil- 
dren in  school  until  the  age  of  fourteen.  Here  is  a  na- 
tion that  not  only  actually  keeps  all  its  children  in 
school  as  long  as  we  do,  but  holds  a  goodly  portion  of 
them  there  on  part  time  for  three  years  more,  and  gives 


138  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

them  training  of  a  most  practical  sort  in  the  field  they 
have  chosen  for  their  life  work.  In  a  factory,  improved 
methods  of  work  and  highly  skilled  operatives  on  short 
time  will  accomplish  more  than  a  less  well  equipped 
and  staffed  enterprise  on  longer  hours,  but  when  to 
long  hours  are  added  superiority  ip  staff  and  methods 
of  work,  the  result  must  be  obvious. 


CHAPTER  V 

SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL    SCHOOLS 

From  one  point  of  view  the  middle  or  secondary 
commercial  schools  are  the  oldest  of  all  types  of  Ger- 
man commercial  schools,  for  they  belong 
to  the  general  Real-school  group.  Francke 
is  commonly  reputed  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  this 
modern  movement  in  his  organization  at  Halle  (1698), 
when  he  set  apart  a  separate  secondary  school  {Pdda- 
gogium)  for  those  children  who  were  not  going  on  fur- 
ther with  their  studies,  but  were  looking  forward  to  com- 
mercial work,  administration  of  estates,  and  allied  un- 
dertakings. In  1747  ^  Hecker  founded  his  first  Real- 
school  (an  institution  that  still  exists  in  Berlin  as  the 
Konigliches  Kaiser  Wilhelms-Realgymnasium) ,  where- 
in was    found    a   special   "manufacturers',    commercial, 

^  It  is  interesting  for  students  of  educational  history  to  note  how 
nearly  this  accords  with  the  date  of  Frankhn's  plan  for  an  American 
academy,  and  the  opening  of  the  school  in  Philadelphia  (1743- 
1749).  Each  of  these  movements  was  the  beginning  of  a  protest 
against  the  traditional  educational  order  in  the  respective  countries, 
a  protest  that  has  only  become  effective  during  the  present  genera- 
tion. 

139 


140  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

and  business"  class,  with  commercial  correspondence 
and  bookkeeping  as  important  subjects  of  instruction. 
Had  the  ill-starred  Philanthropinist  movement  under 
Basedow  and  his  followers  been  more  sanely  and  skil- 
fully directed,  it  might  have  played  a  more  significant 
role  in  the  development  of  the  commercial  movement, 
for  each  of  the  schools  under  this  aegis  had  its  commer- 
cial classes  or  sections.  "Commercial  science,"  what- 
ever may  have  been  the  connotation  of  that  term  then, 
and  bookkeeping,  appear  to  have  been  the  chief  repre- 
sentatives of  business  interests  in  the  program  of  stud- 
ies. In  Hamburg,  in  1803,  even  the  classical  Gymna- 
sium had  its  so-called  classes  civicae,  which  later  devel- 
oped into  a  Realgymnasium. 

The   officially   recognized   differentiation   of   Gymna- 
sium, Realgymnasium,  Oberrealschule,  and  Realschule, 
in  1882,  and  the  equalization  of  privilege 
tion  among    ^°^    graduates    of    the    three    first-named 
Secondary     types    of    institution    in    1900,    went    far 
toward  raising  the  repute  of  the  modern 
as  opposed  to  the  classical  school,  and  therefore  put 
these  secondary  schools  with  commercial  courses  in  a 
much  more  honorable  position.     In  the  new  program 
of   1901  the  Realschulen  were  officially  recognized  as 
forming  the  lowest  and  middle  grades  of  the  Oberreal- 
schulen,  a  state  of  affairs  that  is  not  altogether  to  the 
liking  of  the  German  Union  for  Commercial  Instruction. 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  141 

This  dissatisfaction  became  more  pronounced  since  the 
Realschule  began  to  serve  as  a  middle  technical  and 
trade  school,  rather  than  as  a  commercial  school. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  the  graduates  of  the  Latin  second- 
ary schools  flock  to  the  learned  professions  in  great 
numbers,  while  it  is  commonly  recognized  Business 
that  the  graduates  of  the  Realschulen  go  Tendencies  of 
into  commercial  or  technical  callings.  Be- 
tween Easter,  1899,  and  Easter,  1905,  fifty-six  per  cent. 
of  the  graduates  of  the  Realschulen  of  Hamburg  went 
into  business.^  In  Bremen,  1903-1905,  sixty-three  per 
cent,  of  those  who  left  to  enter  any  calling,  selected  mer- 
cantile work.  In  Cologne  seventy-four  per  cent,  of  the 
graduates  of  the  Realschule  from  1893  to  1895  devoted 
themselves  to  commerce.  These  large  figures  ought  to 
occasion  no  particular  wonderment  when  taken  in  con- 
junction with  the  astounding  growth  of  the  commercial 
population  in  some  of  the  largest  and  most  important 
German  cities  since  1882,  shown  on  the  following 
page. 

As  might  be  expected,  these  selected  cities  show  a  pro- 
portional increase  considerably  larger  than  the  country 
as  a  whole,  for  in  all  Germany  the  numbers  grew  from 
4,531,080  to  8,276,239  persons. 

*  For  these  statistics  and  much  of  the  foregoing  material,  see 
Veroffentlichungen  des  deutschen  Verbandes  fur  das  kaufmdnnische' 
Unterrichtswesen,  vol.  42,  1909. 


142  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

COMMERCIAL  POPULATION ' 


1882 

1895 

110,544 

180,916 

26,346 

37,063 

15,395 

32,503 

18,503 

30,999 

44,676 

101,511 

20,137 

45,028 

22,574 

47,626 

1907 


Berlin 

Breslau.  . 
Cologne.  . 
'^rankf  ort 
Hamburg. 
Leipzig. . . 
Munich.  . 


? 
52,577 
53,318 

? 
156,501] 
65,366 , 


*  Veroffenilichungen  des  deutschen  Verbandes  fiir  das  kaufmdnnische 
Unterrichtswesm,  Bd.  42, 1909,  p.  10. 

Despite  the  general  commercial  activity  throughout 

the  land  the  middle  or  secondary  commercial  schools 

have  not  developed  so  rapidly  as  the  ele- 

ypes  0       mentary  and  university  grades.     The  list 

enumerated  by  Dr.  Knork  -  gives  what  is 

believed  to  be  a  nearly  complete   catalogue  of  all  in 

existence  in  1910.    The  report  of  the  Seventh  Congress 

of  the  German  Union   for   Commercial  Instruction  at 

Stuttgart,  October,  1911,  chronicled  only  a  few  changes. 

These,  together  with  a  few  minor  modifications,  have 

been  incorporated  in  the  following  table: 

*  See  p.  143-5. 


SECONDAEY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS 


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COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


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SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS 


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146  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

Schools  of  the  middle  grade  full  into  several  classes: 

(1)  Commercial  higher  schools,  as  at  Barmen,  Bielefeld,  Dort- 
mund, Essen,  Frankfort,  Leipzig,  and  Hamburg; 

(2)  Conunercial  7?ca/-schools,  as  at  Cologne,  Dessau,  Frankfort, 
Mannheim,  Munich,  Schoneberg-Berhn,  and  Stuttgart; 

(3)  PubUc  ordinary  commercial  schools,  chiefly  in  Saxony,  as 
at  Bautzen,  Chemnitz,  Dresden,  P''lensburg,  Leipzig,  Mainz,  Nurem- 
berg, Stuttgart,  Zittau,  and  Zwickau; 

(4)  Private  ordinary  commercial  schools,  as  at  Augsburg,  Berlin, 
Gera,  Nuremberg,  and  Osnabriick;  and 

(5)  Conunercial  evening  courses  for  volunteers  in  Berlin. 

These  commercial  evening  classes  for  volunteers  are 
supported  by  the  Berlin  Merchants'  Corporation,  the 
authority  which  controls  the  stock  ex- 
change, and  are  under  the  direction  of  a 
board  of  governors,  wherein  are  found  representatives 
of  the  corporation,  other  commercial  bodies,  the  city 
authorities,  and  the  Prussian  Ministry  of  Commerce  and 
Industry.  In  fact,  except  in  the  case  of  the  private 
schools  noted  above,  semi-public  bodies  like  chambers 
of  commerce  and  merchants'  associations  have  played  a 
very  large  part,  not  only  in  founding  these  schools,  but 
also  in  continuing  to  support  them  at  the  present  time, 
some  of  this  support  representing  the  income  from  in- 
vested funds,  and  some  coming  from  annual  grants  from 
the  organizations  in  question.  One  is  inclined  to  think 
of  America  as  the  country  where  private  beneficence  is 
most  largely  used  for  educational  purposes.     It  is  un- 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  147 

doubtedly  true,  if  one  regards  amount  only,  but,  if  vari- 
ety of  interest  is  considered,  Germany  will  certainly 
take  a  very  high  place. 

The  evening  courses  of  the  Berlin  Merchants'  Cor- 
poration and  the  commercial  higher  schools  require  the 
possession  of  the  one-year  volunteer  cer- 
tificate   for    admission.      This    practically   Requirements 

^  *^     for  Admission. 

means  that  all  the  pupils  are  at  least  fif- 
teen years  of  age  (in  reality  they  will  average  more 
than  that)  and  have  completed  the  course  in  a  Real- 
school,  or  have  passed  six  years  in  one  of  the  several 
types  of  Gymnasium.  Three  years  in  an  elementary 
school  are  requisite  alike  for  the  private  commercial 
schools  noted  above,  as  well  as  for  the  commercial  Real- 
schools — these  latter  being  parallel  with  and  granting 
the  same  privileges  as  the  ordinary  i^eaZ-schools.  Most 
of  the  Saxony  commercial  schools  are  on  a  slightly  dif- 
ferent basis,  for  they  require  in  addition  three  years  in 
a  secondary  school,  and  have  only  a  three-year  course. 
In  any  event,  the  pupils  of  the  public  and  private  com- 
mercial schools,  as  well  as  the  commercial  Real-schools, 
are  looking  forward  to  gaining,  in  addition  to  their  spe- 
cial commercial  training,  the  coveted  one-year  volunteer 
certificate. 

Among  the  various  commercial  schools  in  Germany, 
the  city  commercial    school    at   Frankfort    {Stddtische 


148  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

Ilandclslchranstalt)  is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy.    For 

variety  of  interests  in  a  single  commercial  institution, 

it  is  doubtful   if   its   like  may   be   found 
Frankfort 

Commercial    anywhere   else.     The   departments   of   the 
Institute:      g^j^^^^j  include: 

(1)  Commercial  higher  school; 

(2)  Commercial  /2eaZ-school ; 

(3)  One-year  commercial  school  for  girls; 

(4)  Two-year  commercial  school  for  girls; 

(5)  Commercial  vocational  school  for  apprentices  and  assistantsi 
with  four  com-ses : 

(a)  one-year  course, 

(b)  three-year  com-se, 

(c)  section  for  druggists, 

(d)  French  course; 

(6)  Special  evening  courses  {Fachwissenschaftliche  Abendkurse) . 

In  1912-1913  these  special  evening  courses,  each  of 

which  continued  through  a  half  year,  two  hours  in  some 

one  evening  per  week,  included:    French, 

Special  Even-  English,   Spanish,   and    Italian    languages 
ing  Courses. 

and  conversation,  bookkeeping,  commercial 

arithmetic, German  commercial  correspondence,  and  sten- 
ography. The  total  enrollment  for  each  semester  of  1912- 
1913,  478  and  526,  respectively,  was  almost  exclusively 
composed  of  adults  engaged  in  various  business  houses  of 
the  city.  These  courses  are  open  to  the  young  people 
of  both  sexes  who  are  beyond  the  limits  of  the  com- 
pulsory continuation  attendance  regulation,  and  who 
have    the    necessary    fitness    to    undertake    the    work. 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  149 

Fees  of  six  marks  per  semester  are  charged  for  each 
course.  Linguistic  instruction  plays  a  preponderating 
role,  for,  of  the  526  pupils  in  the  winter  semester  of 
1912-1913,  425  were  enrolled  in  the  classes  of  the  four 
modern  languages  noted  above,  196  studying  French, 
and  162  studying  English. 

The  apprentices'  and  assistants'  sections  are  very  simi- 
lar to  the  continuation  schools  which  have  been  described 
in  earlier  chapters.    In  fact  the  three-year 
course  here  parallels  them  exactly,  attend-         ^^^ 

ance  being  accepted  as  a  substitute  for  the     Assistants' 
,  ,  •        ,•  Courses, 

attendance  at  a   compulsory  contmuation 

school,  which  would  otherwise  be  demanded.  There  are 
no  fees  at  this  latter  school,  while  in  these  apprentices' 
courses  the  tuition  amounts  to  forty  marks  per  year. 
One  finds  in  these  fees,  then,  the  mark  of  differentiation 
between  the  pupils  of  this  course  and  those  in  the  ordi- 
nary continuation  schools,  the  line  of  demarcation  being 
drawn  upon  a  purely  financial  basis.  The  eight  hours 
per  week,  as  against  six  in  the  continuation  school,  re- 
lieves the  pressure  somewhat,  while  the  course  is  fur- 
thermore enriched  by  two  week  hours  per  year  of  op- 
tional modern  language  instruction  in  French  and  a  like 
amount  in  English,  as  well  as  two  hours  optional  in  the 
second  year  in  stenography.  On  the  average  more  than 
three-quarters  of  the  pupils  elect  one  modern  language, 
and  many  of  them  take  both.     This  three-year  course 


150  COMMEHCIAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

represents  the  largest  single  group  in  the  whole  institu- 
tion, having  had,  February,  1913,  an  enrollment  of  596 
pupils. 

The  three-year  druggists'  course  likewise  parallels 
the  continuation  school  course,  and  aims  to  accomplish 
for  the  druggists'  assistant  exactly  what  the 
p  ordinary   commercial  course  does  for  the 

embryo  merchants.  It  should  be  observed, 
in  this  connection,  that  Germany  distinguishes  between 
the  druggist  and  the  apothecary.  The  former  is  nothing 
but  a  mixer  of  drugs,  while  the  latter  is  a  chemist  as  well. 
The  druggists  are  recruited  from  the  elementary  school 
pupils,  while  the  chemists  have  had  the  superior  training 
afforded  by  higher  school  and  university.  Only  a  pass- 
ing glance  is  necessary  to  discover  the  similarity  between 
the  program  of  the  ordinary  lower  commercial  school 
and  that  for  the  druggists'  apprentices,  found  on  the  fol- 
lowing page. 

The  time  saved  by  the  exclusion  of  economic  geogra- 
phy, and  one  hour  less  devoted  to  arithmetic,  in  con- 
junction with  two  additional  week  hours  in  the  total  for 
each  year,  make  up  the  three  hours  per  week  in  each 
class  that  are  absorbed  by  the  purely  technical  subjects. 
The  modicum  of  time  devoted  to  physics  and  chemistry 
shows  clearly  that  both  subjects  are  treated  most  super- 
ficially, everything  that  does  not  contribute  directly  to 
the  druggists'  specific  work  being  rigidly  excluded.    The 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  151 

PROGRAM  OF  THE  DRUGGISTS'  SECTION— FRANKFORT 


Subjects 


Periods  per  Week 

Years 


II 


III 


German 

Civics 

Commercial  arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Business      management,     and 
Commercial  correspondence. 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Drugs , . . . 


school  established  the  section  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Druggists'  Association  of  Frankfort,  and,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  course  the  examination  on  the  commercial 
subjects  is  held  jointly  with  the  druggist  assistants'  ex- 
amination in  cooperation  with  the  Druggists'  Associa- 
tion. 

The  French  preparatory  course  has  been  organized  in 
the  interests  of  the  Burger-school  pupils,  in  order  to  give 
them  the  French  necessary  to  enter  the 
Real-school  at  the  conclusion  of  the  com- 
pulsory school  period,  and  to  enable  them 
to  complete  the  last  three  years  in  this  higher  school. 
Large  demands  are  necessarily  made  upon  the  pupils. 
These  the  brighter  and  more  industrious  alone  can  sat- 
isfy, for  they  have  only  three  hours  per  week  for  two 


Special 
French  Course. 


152 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


years  in  which  to  cover  the  same  amount  of  work  as  the 
rcguhir  pupils  who  have  spent  two  or  three  times  as  many- 
hours  on  the  subject. 

The  two  courses  for  girls  are  the  outcome  of  a  desire 

to  put  girls'  opportunities  for  commercial  training  on  a 

Qjjlg.        par  with  those  of  the  boys.     The  follow- 

Courses.      ing  is  the  program  of  studies  for  the  one 

and  two-3'ear  courses. 


GIRLS'  COMMERCIAL  COURSES— FRANKFORT 

Week  Hours 


Subjects 

One- Year 
Course 

Two- Year  Course 

II 

I 

GGrrnan  language 

1 

2 

4 

4 
4 
4 

3 

3 

S 

2 

2 
6 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 
2 
2 
1 

2 

German  correspondence 

French    language    and    corre- 
spondence   

English    language    and    corre- 
spondence   

4 
4 

Commercial  arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Theory  of  commerce  and  ex- 
change  

Commercial  correspondence . . . 

Commercial  geography 

Commercial    geography,     and 
Commodities  of  commerce .  . 

Stenography 

Penmanship 

Singing 

3 
3 

2 
2 

2 

2 

i 

Typewriting  (optional) . . . 

30 

2 

24 

25 
2 

32 

24 

27 

SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  153 

The  one-year  course  is  intended  for  graduates  of 
a  higher  girls'  school,  or  a  middle  school,  where  they 
have  probably  had  seven  years  of  French,  and  four 
years  of  English,  as  well.  The  pupils  in  the  two-year 
course  are,  in  most  cases,  graduates  of  the  ordinary  ele- 
mentary schools,  who  here  take  up  foreign  languages 
for  the  first  time.  It  is  a  much-mooted  question  as  to 
whether  it  is  advisable  for  them  to  undertake  the  study 
of  two  new  languages  when  they  are  also  meeting  for 
the  first  time  an  entire  array  of  other  new  material  in 
the  shape  of  the  commercial  subjects.  This  is  only  one 
of  the  many  problems  that  are  vexing  the  supporters  of 
girls'  education  in  Germany  at  the  present  time.  In- 
deed, the  whole  question  of  girls'  education  is  decidedly 
in  a  state  of  flux.  As  regards  the  commercial  subjects, 
both  courses  strive  to  reach  substantially  the  same  re- 
sults. While  in  most  of  the  subjects  the  pupils  of  the 
two-year  course  have  some  advantage  in  time  allotment, 
the  one-year  girls  are  somewhat  more  mature,  and  have 
had  a  much  better  and  broader  foundation  upon  which 
to  build,  so  that  in  the  end  the  professional  attainments 
are  fairly  comparable.  One  cannot  say,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  boys'  schools,  that  one  course  prepares  more  par- 
ticularly for  one  grade  of  commercial  work  than  the 
other.  The  additional  modern  language  accomplish- 
ments of  the  short-course  pupils  naturally  turn  them 
rather  more  to  business  houses  with  foreign  connections. 


154  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

but  otherwise  (he  competition  between  the  two  groups  is 
entirely  open,  and  a  girl's  success  is  dependent  solely 
upon  her  own  ability. 

Of  all  the  departments  in  the  school  the  commercial 
Real  course  comes  nearest  to  what  we  are  familiar  with 
Commercial  '^^  ^  commercial  high  school.  There  is  no 
L'cal  Course,  use  disguising  the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  the 
I.  Position,  efforts  put  forth  by  the  German  Union  for 
Commercial  Instruction  and  others,  to  popularize  this 
type  of  school,  it  has  not  yet  been  received  into  general 
favor.  The  old  vested  humanistic  interests  oppose  it  as 
an  intruder,  and  still  look  upon  it  with  much  the  same 
distrust  that  was  bestowed  upon  commercial  and  manual 
training  courses  for  so  long  in  this  country,  insisting 
that  it  would  be  merely  a  refuge  for  the  weaker  and  un- 
successful pupils  of  the  regular  secondary  schools.  It  is 
undeniable  that  there  is  more  or  less  justification  for 
this  attitude,  but  the  time  is  rapidly  approaching  when 
the  contention  will  no  longer  be  true.  Every  new  de- 
parture in  the  educational  system  is  compelled  to  face 
the  same  indifference  and  hostile  criticism.  Sound  and 
sane  organization  on  a  strong  basis  of  inherent  validity 
of  principle  can  largely  be  counted  upon  to  overcome  this 
opposition.  Business  interests  themselves  have  not 
shown  the  utmost  cordiality  toward  the  venture.  Even 
a  large  commercial  center  like  Hamburg,  for  example, 
is  altogether  opposed  to  the  general  scheme  of  commer- 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  155 

cial  training  in  secondary  and  higher  schools,  although 
it  is  much  more  tolerant  toward  those  of  elementary 
grade.  In  1906  the  chamber  of  commerce  in  Hamburg 
went  on  record  as  declaring  that  the  work  of  these 
schools  was  not  sufficiently  practical,  and  that  much 
more  was  to  be  gained  by  a  sojourn  abroad,  the  very 
thing  that  for  years  had  been  the  chief  asset  of  the 
Hanseatic  merchant.  Aside  from  the  commercial  de- 
partment established  at  the  Fichte  i?eaZ-school  at 
Schoneberg,  a  suburb  of  Berlin,  in  1909,  whose  organiza- 
tion will  consequently  not  be  complete  until  the  fall  of 
1914,  the  schools  at  Cologne  and  Frankfort  are  the  only 
schools  of  this  type  in  all  Prussia.  In  view  of  the  ef- 
forts being  made  at  this  moment  to  disseminate  infor- 
mation about  this  relatively  new  variant  of  the  old 
i^eaZ-school,  and  of  the  propaganda  being  carried  on  to 
encourage  its  spread,  it  is  well  worth  while  to  consider 
it  briefly. 

Beginning  with  Easter,  1911,  a  new  program  of  stud- 
ies was  put  into  operation,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
Frankfort  school  authorities,  and  with  the 

3.    Program. 

approval  of  the  educational  department  in 
Berlin,  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  making  it  easier  for 
the  graduates  of  this  course  to  go  on  to  the  Oberreal- 
schule,  in  case  they  so  desired.     This  program  is  here 
given  in  full. 


156 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


COMiMERCIAL  REALSCHULE— FRANKFORT » 
Week  Hours 


Subjects 


VI 


IV 


III 


II 


Totals 


Religion 

German  and 

History  stories 

French 

English 

History 

Geography 

Arithmetic  and  Mathematics 

Natural  science 

Commercial  arithmetic 

Correspondence,    Bookkeep- 
ing, and  Commercial  science 

Penmanship 

Freehand  drawing 

Stenography 

Singing 

Gymnastics 

Totals 


13 

23 

34 

13 

9 

12 

28 

18 

6 

6 

7 
10^ 

2* 

6 
15 


30 


30 


34 


35 


35 


36 


200 


*  Freehand  drawing   and   mechanical  drawing  in   Class   I. 
Pupils  choose  between  drawing  and  stenography. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  course  serves  the  dou- 
ble purpose  of  affording  some  training  for  commercial 

3  Course  of  ^^^^  ^^^  "^^  ^^^^  Same  moment  of  satisfying 
study.  ^j^g  requirements  of  the  educational  author- 
ities at  Berlin  imposed  upon  a  recognized  six-year 
higher  school.  This  department  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Minister  of  Education,  while  the  various  more  speci- 
fically commercial  departments  of  the  institution  de- 
scribed heretofore  are  subordinate  to  the  Minister  of 

1  Jahresbericht  der  Stadtischen''Handelslehranstalt  zu  Frankfurt  am 
Main,  1912-1913,  p.  16. 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  157 

Commerce  and  Industry.  This  dual  allegiance  occa- 
sions no  diflBculty,  for  the  departments  are  as  distinct 
with  as  independent  teaching  staffs  as  though  they  were 
located  in  different  parts  of  the  city.  From  the  local 
point  of  view,  however,  they  are  one,  since  they  are 
directed  by  a  common  administration  and  are  supported 
from  the  municipal  treasury.  In  view  of  the  recognized 
conservatism  of  the  educational  authorities  it  is  evident 
that  the  program  of  studies  cannot  depart  very  widely 
from  that  imposed  upon  other  22eaZ-schools.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  for  the  first  three  years,  the  courses  are  identi- 
cal, and  the  additional  time  for  purely  commercial  work 
during  the  last  three  years  is  substantially  all  obtained 
by  cutting  down  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  sing- 
ing and  gymnastics,  and  eliminating  four  hours  from 
the  mathematics  course  of  the  Real-school.  Indeed,  the 
present  course  shows  considerable  diminution  of  empha- 
sis upon  the  technically  professional  subjects  in  com- 
parison with  that  displaced  two  years  ago.  On  the  face 
of  it  only  a  relatively  small  amount  of  the  total  time 
is  devoted  to  distinctly  commercial  subjects:  two  hours 
in  each  of  the  last  three  years  for  commercial  arith- 
metic; three  hours  in  each  of  the  last  two  years  for  cor- 
respondence, bookkeeping,  and  conmiercial  science;  and 
two  hours  (optional)  in  the  last  year  for  stenography. 
A  careful  scrutiny  of  the  detailed  course  of  study  will 


158  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

bring  to  light  additional  points  wherein  the  other  sub- 
jects show  a  slight  commercial  bias,  namely:  French,  in 
the  last  two  years,  contains  a  brief  introduction  to  com- 
mercial correspondence,  and  the  pupils  have  some  prac- 
tice in  composing  commercial  letters  orally  and  in  writ- 
ing; in  English  the  pupils  arc  introduced  to  the  subject 
of  commercial  correspondence;  history  treats  cursorily 
the  economic  development  of  Germany  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  hardly  more  ex- 
tensively than  the  course  in  the  ordinary  higher  school; 
geography  in  the  last  year  touches  very  briefly  upon 
"world  production,  traffic,  and  trade";  natural  science 
considers  the  more  important  processes  of  industrial 
chemistry,  and  includes  an  acquaintance  with  the  chief 
commodities  of  international  trade  and  their  fabrication, 
all  covered  in  a  portion  of  the  last  year  of  the  course. 
The  six  hours  devoted  to  commercial  arithmetic,  cor- 
respondence, bookkeeping,  and  commercial  science  cover 
identically  the  same  general  field  as  the  corresponding 
subjects  in  the  continuation  schools,  although  they  are 
treated  from  a  somewhat  broader  point  of  view,  large 
principles  being  emphasized  at  the  expense  of  the  nar- 
rower rule  of  thumb  method  of  procedure  that  is  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  lower  schools. 

As  far  as  mere  ofl&ce  practice  is  concerned  the  lads 
who  complete  this  course  are  unquestionably  less  adept 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  159 

than  are  those  from  the  continuation  schools,  for  they 
have  had  considerably  less  drill  in  commercial  subjects, 
but  their  general  attainment  is  markedly      .  ..  . 

superior,  thanks  to  a  broader  course  of  ment  of  the 
study,  with  a  presumably  sterner  stock 
of  brain  stuff  to  work  upon,  and  they  are  consequently 
in  line  for  positions  of  responsibility  and  under-leader- 
ship  in  the  business  wprld,  instead  of  being  mere  hewers 
of  wood  and  drawers  of  water.  They  have  the  minimum 
academic  equipment,  graduation  from  a  six-year  recog- 
nized higher  school,  which  renders  them  eligible  for  the 
examination  that  carries  the  one-year  military  service 
privilege,  and  their  chance  of  a  desirable  appointment 
in  the  business  world  is  materially  enhanced.  In  age 
they  will  average,  roughly,  a  year  younger  than  the 
pupils  of  the  continuation  school  at  the  close  of  their 
course,  sixteen  and  a  half  in  the  former  case,  as  against 
seventeen  and  a  half  in  the  latter.  Of  the  thirty -nine 
graduates  of  this  course,  at  Easter,  1913,  twenty-eight 
entered  commercial  houses  and  five  secured  bank  posi- 
tions. It  is  next  to  impossible  for  the  ordinary  con- 
tinuation school  pupil  to  enter  the  banking  business,  for 
most  bankers  draw  their  clerks  exclusively  from  gradu- 
ates of  the  higher  schools.  For  most  of  the  graduates 
of  this  course  their  school  career  ends  here.  During  the 
last  three  years,  1911-1913,  only  fifteen  out  of  a  total 


160  COMMERCIAL   KDUCATION    IN    GEUMANY 

of  one  hundred  and  fourteen  luvvc  gone  on  to  higher 
institutions  of  learning. 

Despite  tlie  measure  of  success  that  this  school  has 
attained,  and  unquestionably  it  has  been  successful, 
as  its  growth  from  fifty-two  pupils,  when  it  was 
founded  in  1903,  to  about  two  hundred  and  fifty, 
ten  years  later,  amply  testifies,  the  type  of  school 
has  not  been  generally  received  with  favor.  As  has 
been  suggested  before,  business  men  are  not  yet  con- 
vinced of  its  worth;  only  cities  of  considerable  size  can 
afford  to  assume  the  necessary  expense,  and  not  many 
of  these  are  willing  to  support  such  an  undertaking,  espe- 
cially in  view  of  the  amounts  they  have  already  ex- 
pended in  establishing  commercial  continuation  schools. 
There  are  only  two  other  commercial  i^eaZ-schools  in 
Prussia — at  Cologne  and  at  Schoneberg  (Berlin) — that 
attempt  to  fulfil  a  similar  purpose.  The  type  is  thus 
something  of  a  luxury,  appealing  to  parents  who  are  a 
little  more  fortunately  situated  financially  than  the  great 
mass  of  the  people,  small  merchants,  master  workmen  in 
various  trades,  minor  government  officials  in  the  postal 
service,  and  the  like,  parents  who  intend  their  sons  for 
a  business  career  but  who  are  a  little  more  than  ordi- 
narily ambitious  for  their  offspring,  and  who  are  will- 
ing to  make  the  pecuniary  sacrifice  to  gratify  that  am- 
bition. This  financial  burden  will  amount  to  at  least 
one    hundred    and    ten    marks    per    year    for    the    six 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAX,   SCHOOLS  161 

years  of  the  course  in  school  fees  alone,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  subsequent  expenses  of  the  one-year  volunteer 
service  in  the  army,  but  the  advance  in  social  position 
attendant  thereupon  is  the  prize  that  makes  all  this  seem 
worth  while. 

The  most  advanced  department  in  the  institution  is 
the  commercial  higher  school.     In  reality  this  forms  a 
continuation  of  the  i?ea^-school  just  de-    commercial 
scribed,  although  it  is  not  quite  up  to  the       Higher 
standard  of  recognized  Oberrealschulen,  for 
the  course  at  Frankfort  is  only  two  years  in  length,  in- 
stead of  the  traditional  three  years  beyond  the  Real- 
school  period.     It  must  be  added,  however,  that  this 
school  in  no  sense  attempts  to  parallel  the  culture  course 
of  the  regular  higher  school,  even  of  the  Oberrealschule 
type,  for  all  the  instruction  is  purely  professional,  as  a 
glance  at  the  program  on  the  following  page  must  readily 
show. 

This  is  a  purely  professional  commercial  school,  whose 

sole  interest  is  to  prepare  young  men  for  active  business 

life.    Its  choice  of  subject  matter  is  not  re- 
Course, 
stricted  by  the  necessity  of  conforming  to 

academic  requirements  imposed  by  the  education  de- 
partment at  Berlin,  for  graduation  from  here  carries  no 
sanction  to  undertake  university  study.  It  falls  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Minister  of  Commerce  and  In- 
dustry, and  is  thus  left  free  to  formulate  its  courses  with 


163 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


COMMERCIAL  HIGHER  SCHOOL— FRANKFORT  » 
Week  Hours 


Subjects 


Semesters 


II         III        IV 


German 

French  language  and  correspondence . 
English  language  and  correspondence . 

Commercial  arithmetic 

General  commercial  theory 

German  commercial  correspondence . 

Bookkeeping 

Commercial  and  Banking  law 

Economics 

General  and  Commercial  history .... 
Geography  of  commerce  and  trade .  . 

Physics 

Chemistry  and  Chemical  technology . 
Commodities  of  commerce  and  Me- 
chanical technology 

Penmanship 

Gymnastics 

Optional  Subjects: 

Spanish  or  Italian 

Stenography 


Totals. 


37 


37 


37 


37 


1  Jahresbericht    der    Stddtischen    Handelslehranstalt    zu    Frankfurt 
am  Main,  1912-1913,  p.  12. 

the  single  purpose  of  fitting  for  commercial  life.  Pos- 
session of  the  one-year  volunteer  certificate  for  army 
service  is  the  minimum  standard  of  attainment  accepted 
for  entrance.  Inasmuch  as  this  may  be  secured  by  any 
pupil  who  has  completed  a  six-year  course  at  a  recog- 
nized higher  school  {Gymnasium,  Eealgymna&ium, 
Oberrealschule,  or  Realschule) ,  it  is  theoretically  possible 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  163 

for  the  pupils  to  possess  a  considerable  variety  of  acade- 
mic attainment.  In  practice,  however,  it  draws  its  pu- 
pils from  the  Oberrealschulen,  or  the  Realschulen,  where 
they  have  already  had  a  "modern"  training,  including 
six  years  of  French  (thirty-five  week  hours),  and  three 
years  of  English  (thirteen  week  hours),  in  addition  to 
a  considerable  amount  of  mathematics  and  science.  The 
course  thus  constitutes  a  natural  sequence  of  the  Real- 
school  course.  During  the  last  three  years  (1910-1912) 
only  ten  graduates  of  the  commercial  Real-school  de- 
partment of  this  institution  have  gone  on  to  the  higher 
commercial  course,  so  it  is  readily  apparent  that  no 
specifically  commercial  training  may  be  presupposed. 
These  ten  have  necessarily  found  some  duplication  of 
the  twelve  hours  of  commercial  branches  that  they  have 
already  had  in  the  lower  school,  but,  for  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  pupils,  the  work  is  all  new. 

The  term  "higher"  is  attached  to  this  school  because  it 
is  associated  with  the  possession  of  the  one-year  military 
service  certificate,  rather  than  because  in  a  strictly 
graded  course  of  commercial  study  its  subjects  are  based 
upon  an  elementary  study  of  the  same  subjects  already 
completed.  In  fact,  many  of  the  subjects  cover  the  same 
general  field  as  those  already  explained  at  some  length 
in  connection  with  the  commercial  continuation  schools, 
but  considered  from  a  broader,  more  general  point  of 
view,  as  might  be  assumed  when  one  recalls  the  more 


104  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

comprehensive  and  catholic  character  of  the  pupils'  pre- 
vious academic  attainments,  as  well  as  their  greater  ma- 
turity. In  this  category  will  fall  the  following  subjects: 
commercial  arithmetic,  general  commercial  theory,  com- 
mercial correspondence,  bookkeeping,  commercial  and 
banking  law,  commercial  history,  and  geography  of  com- 
merce and  trade.  The  foreign  languages  and  corre- 
spondence continue  the  linguistic  studies  of  the  earlier 
scholastic  training,  with  emphasis  upon  the  correspond- 
ence side;  the  science  likewise  carries  on  the  same  sub- 
jects of  the  Real-school,  but  is  chiefly  confined  to  prac- 
tical applications  in  trade;  while  commodities  of  com- 
merce, although  a  new  subject,  does  not  differ  from  the 
course  in  the  Munich  schools,  with  the  same  reservation 
of  being  treated  from  a  broader  and  more  mature  point 
of  view. 

The  course  is  designed  to  fit  young  men  for  the  more 
important  positions  in  commercial  life,  for  banking,  ex- 
port and  import  trade,  and  service  abroad. 
Purpose. 

Hence  the  importance  attached  to  modern 

language  instruction.  Opportunity  is  also  afforded  for 
taking  up  a  third  language,  Italian  or  Spanish,  and  a 
goodly  number  of  the  pupils  are  quick  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  facilities  at  their  disposal.  During  the  ten 
years  of  the  school's  existence  most  of  the  eighty-five 
pupils  that  have  actually  been  graduated  have  gone  into 
business,  although  some  few  have  gone  on  to  the  colleges 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  165 

of  commerce  to  prepare  themselves  for  positions  as 
teachers  in  commercial  schools.  Thus  the  commercial 
enterprises  of  the  city  of  Frankfort  are  receiving  from 
the  commercial  Real-school  and  the  commercial  higher 
school  of  this  institution  alone  practically  fifty  recruits 
every  year.  All  the  more  significant  does  this  become 
when  one  considers  that  this  special  attention  is  not  be- 
ing devoted  to  the  future  leaders  of  commerce,  but  to 
those  who  will  be  merely  the  under-officers  in  the  great 
commercial  forces  that  are  doing  so  much  for  the  ma- 
terial progress  of  that  center  of  German  business.  This 
whole  commercial  school  movement  in  Frankfort  is 
largely  the  result  of  the  waning  financial  position  of  that 
old  mart  of  German  trade.  The  stock  exchange  no 
longer  occupies  the  place  it  once  held,  and  many  of  the 
leading  banking  houses  have  been  moving  their  offices 
to  Berlin.  Hence  the  merchants  have  begun  to  realize 
that  in  the  not  far  distant  future  they  must  marshal 
other  forces  in  order  to  maintain  the  ancient  prestige 
of  their  town  in  the  business  world.  This  school  is  an 
attempt  to  meet  the  situation. 

The  following  questions,  taken  from  the  final  exami- 
nations of  February,  1912,  and  January-February,  1913, 
will   doubtless   cast   considerable   light   on   Examination 
the  general  character  of  the  work.     (The     Questions, 
original  questions  in  modern  languages  were  all  given  in 
German.) 


166  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION    IN   GERMANY 

1  German  (1912) 

How  is  England's  jealousy  of  Germany  to  be  explained? 

2  French  (1912) 

(a)  Translation 

Tea.     (Shortextract  put  into  the  pupil's  hands  to  be 
translated  into  French.) 

(b)  Correspondence 

(1)  On  February  1,  1912,  Emil  Dubert  of  Offenbach 
writes  Charpentier  &  Co.,  Paris,  who  have  not  given 
him  any  orders  for  some  time,  offering  them  various 
kinds  of  fine  leather  goods  which  a  fortunate  transaction 
will  enable  him  to  sell  at  an  unusually  low  price;  and 
he  requests  a  prompt  and  large  order  from  the  samples 
which  should  sliortly  reach  them.  He  assures  them  of 
the  careful  execution  of  the  order,  especially  since  he  is 
very  desirous  of  reviving  the  former  active  business 
relationship  between  the  two  firms. 

(2)  Charpentier  &  Co.,  in  their  answer  of  February 
5th,  express  their  regret  at  the  breaking  off  of  business 
relations  between  the  two  firms,  for  which  the  high 
prices  of  Dubert's  goods  were  alone  responsible.  The 
offer  that  he  has  made,  however,  persuades  them  to 
have  dealings  with  him  again,  and  to  order  several 
dozen  purses,  pocketbooks,  and  cigar  cases.  They 
have  no  sale  at  this  time  for  the  travellers'  articles  that 
were  also  included  in  his  samples. 

3  English 

(a)  Translation 

George  Stephenson  and  his  son  Robert.     (1913.     See 
note  under  2  a  above.) 

(b)  Correspondence  (1912) 

(1)  On  February  15,  1912,  William  Wickham  &  Son, 
London,  write  Richard  Miiller  &  Co.,  Frankfort,  asking 
for  his  latest  samples  in  fine  leather  goods,  terms  of 
deUvery,  and  lowest  quotations,  since  they  intend  to 
place  large  orders  if  the  goods  are  satisfactory.  They 
refer  him  to  John  Sinclair,  Portsmouth. 

(2)  On  February  17th,  Richard  Miiller  &  Co.  write 
John  Sinclair  for  information  in  regard  to  WiUiam  Wick- 
ham &  Son. 

(3)  On  February  20th,  John  Sinclair  rephes  that  the 
firm  is  entirely  trustworthy.  He  himself  has  done 
business  with  them  for  twenty  years,  and  has  often 
given  them  as  much  as  M  3000  credit  against  long  term 
bills.  The  information  is  given  confidentially,  and  is 
not  to^be  considered  as  in  any  way  obUgating  him. 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  167 

4     Commercial  Arithmetic  (1912) 

(1)  Calculation  on  an  order  of  goods  from  Hamburg: 
20  bales  Bari  almonds;  gross,  2135  kg.;  tare,  1  kg.  per 
bale;  at  M  105 .  50  for  50  kg.  50  sacks  rice;  gross,  5000 
kg.;  tare,  50  kg.;  at  M  17.50  for  50  kg.  Invoice  charges: 
brokerage,  3^%;  insurance,  1%  on  M  6500;  miscellan- 
eous charges  in  Hamburg,  M  24.35;  commission,  2J^%. 
Charges  on  dehvery :  freight,  M  243.37;  duty  on  almonds, 
2113  kg.  at  M  30  per  100  kg.;  duty  on  rice,  4950  kg.  net 
at  M  4  per  100  kg. 

What  is  the  actual  cost  price  per  50  kg.  of  the  al- 
monds and  the  rice,  the  warehouse  weight  of  the  almonds 
being  2111  kg.  net,  and  of  the  rice  4950  kg.  net? 

(2)  A  Swiss  exporter  sells  London  goods  to  the  amount 
of  156/18/9  on  long  sight  draft  of  August  15th.  He 
orders  his  banker  in  Frankfort  to  dispose  of  this  and 
remit  the  net  proceeds  in  exchange  at  short  sight  on 
Paris.  Frankfort  receives  the  draft  June  1st  and  sells 
it  the  same  day,  charging  therefore  %%  commission 
and  3^%  brokerage,  the  rate  of  exchange  being  20.40 
(8  days  at  3%)-  For  the  purchase  of  Paris  exchange, 
which  is  likewise  consummated  June  1st,  K%  broker- 
age is  to  be  charged. 

(a)  What  is  the  amount  in  marks  of  the  sale  of  the 
draft  on  London? 

(b)  What  is  the  amount  in  francs  of  the  remittance 
on  June  15th,  if  exchange  on  Paris  is  81  (8  days  at 
3%)? 

(3)  A  Frankfort  banker  converts  on  October  25th,  10 
shares  (M  1000  per  share)  of  the  Frankfurter  Hypo- 
thekenbank  into  3%  Dutch  loan  of  '96.  Shares  quoted 
at  202.50,  interest  from  January  1st.  Bond  quotation, 
95,  interest  periods  March  1st  and  September  1st. 

(a)  What  does  the  bank  stock  bring  in  marks,  at 
}/s%  brokerage,  and  55  pf.  tax  per  M  1000  of  the 
market  value? 

(b)  What  is  the  par  value  in  florins  of  the  bonds 
bought  with  the  proceeds,  brokerage  at  K%,  tax, 
13^,  and  the  smallest  denomination  of  the  bonds, 
500  florins? 

(c)  What  is  the  balance  in  favor  of  the  consigner  of 
the  shares? 

(4)  What  is  the  income  on  33^%  Prussian  Consols, 
which  can  be  bought  in  the  market  at  98.50? 

5  a  Bookkeeping  (1913) 

(1)  A  limited  liability  company  is  established  with 
the  following  partners  and  capital  subscribed: 


108  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

A.— M  50,000;  R.— M  30,000;  and  C— M  20,000. 
Twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  capital  is  paid  in.  During 
the  year,  A.  sells  half  of  his  interest  to  D.,  and  B.  sells 
all  of  his  to  E.  Before  the  end  of  the  year,  another 
twentj'-five  per  cent  of  the  capital  is  paid  in. 

(a)  Open    the   necessary   accounts,   and   make   the 

entries. 

(6)  Close  the  accounts. 

(2)  A  joint  stock  company  has  4%  bonds  to  the  amount 
of  IVI  1,000,000,  with  interest  faUing  due  April  1st  and 
October  1st.  At  the  clo-se  of  the  year  1912,  the  April 
coupons  were  entirely  redeemed,  and  the  October  cou- 
pons to  the  amount  of  M  800. 

(a)  How  are  the  falhng  due  of  the  interest  and  its 

redemption  to  be  entered? 

(6)  Close  the  accounts  that  have  been  opened. 

5  b     German  Commercial  Correspondence  (1913) 

The  following  advertisement  appears  in  the  Frank- 
furter Zeitung: 

"A  wholesale  underwear  and  hosiery  house 
desires  a  retail  salesman  and  well-recommend- 
ed representative  for  South  Germany,  Rhine- 
land,  and  Westphaha.  Address  O.P.  26,270, 
Zeitung  office." 

Write  (a)  answer  of  applicant,  without  statement  of 
conditions ; 

(fe)  reply  of  firm,  stating  conditions; 
(c)  acceptance  of  appUcant,  repeating  conditions. 

6  Chemistry  and  Commodities  of  Commerce  (1913) 

The  manufacture  of  soap. 

Of  all  the  commercial  higher  school  courses  the  course 

at  Frankfort  is  the  most  comprehensive  and  the  most 

advanced,  for  those  at  Barmen,  Bielefeld, 

Character  of  Dortmund,  Elberfeld,  Essen,  Leipzig,  and 
the  Course. 

Hamburg  arc  only  a  single  year  in  length, 

as  against  two  years  here.    The  character  of  the  work  is 

much  the  same  in  all,  and  is  uniformly  on  the  same  high 

plane.    Barmen  and  Hamburg  are  the  only  schools  that 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  169 

offer  more  than  French  and  English  in  modern  languages, 
and  in  both  these  instances  Spanish  figures  as  an  optional 
subject.  In  Dortmund,  Elberfeld,  and  Essen  there  are 
separate  sections  for  boys  and  girls,  while  in  Barmen 
there  has  been  real  coeducation  since  the  school  was  or- 
ganized in  1905,  an  experiment  that  has  been  in  every 
way  thoroughly  satisfactory.  The  Barmen  course  is 
necessarily  the  same  for  both  sexes,  while  in  Dortmund, 
Elberfeld,  and  Essen  certain  minor  differences  appear 
in  the  programs  outlined  for  the  boys  and  the  girls. 
One  cannot  fail  to  notice  the  contrast  in  method  of 
treatment  of  subject  matter  in  the  commercial  higher 
schools  in  comparison  with  that  pursued  in  the  com- 
mercial continuation  schools.  The  former  is  broader 
and  more  comprehensive,  and  assumes  not  only  a  larger 
fund  of  common  knowledge,  but  an  ability  to  arrive  at 
general  conclusions  that  is  conspicuously  absent  in  the 
latter  schools.  From  the  character  of  the  problems  given 
in  the  examinations  quoted  above,  it  is  evident  that  no 
mere  rule  of  thumb  procedure  will  suffice  to  carry  the 
pupil  through  the  work  to  be  covered.  Good,  hard 
thinking  is  necessary,  and  plenty  of  it,  in  addition  to  a 
large  amount  of  specific,  detailed,  fact  knowledge. 
There  is,  furthermore,  free  play  for  the  exercise  of  in- 
dividual initiative,  and  keen,  discriminating  judgment 
plays  a  large  role.  These  schools  aim  at  laying  the 
technical  foundation  for  the  development  of  future  un- 


170  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

dor-leaders  in  commercial  activity,  not  at  turning  out 
merely  intelligent  routine  workers.  They  intend  to  do 
for  the  merchant  class  what  the  higher  schools  have 
long  done  for  general  culture,  leaving  to  the  colleges  of 
commerce  the  task  of  accomplishing  for  mercantile  pur- 
suits what  the  universities  have  accomplished  for  the 
so-called  higher  professions. 

Some  of  these  schools,  notably  Elberfeld,  make  sys- 
tematic efforts  to  give  the  pupils  first-hand  acquaintance 
with  commercial  and  industrial  enterprises. 

^        ,  Elberfeld   sets   apart   one   hour  per  week 

Excursions.  ^  ^ 

for  laboratory  work  in  connection  with  the 
subject  of  "commodities  of  commerce  and  technology," 
and  some  of  this  time  is  spent  in  excursions  to  various 
industrial  and  commercial  plants  of  the  neighborhood. 
These  latter  come  at  irregular  intervals  during  the  year, 
and  there  is  no  fixed  schedule,  or  even  a  particular  round 
of  visits  to  be  followed.  Pupils  of  the  Frankfort  school 
spent  a  whole  month  of  the  summer  vacations  in  1904, 
1905,  and  1907  on  more  extended  trips,  but,  unfortu- 
nately, they  have  undertaken  no  such  long  excursions 
since  that  time.  These  longer  journeys  form  a  regular 
feature  of  the  Elberfeld  course.  In  August,  1910,  the 
boys,  accompanied  by  two  of  their  teachers,  made  a 
trip  to  Holland  and  Belgium,  visiting  the  exposition  at 
Brussels,  and  paying  particular  attention  to  the  com- 
mercial activity  of  the  Netherland  ports.    In  1911  they 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  171 

went  to  Bremen,  Hamburg,  Liibeck,  the  Kiel  Canal,  and 
Copenhagen,  while  in  August,  1912,  about  a  dozen  of 
them  went  up  the  Rhine,  through  Switzerland,  via  Mar- 
seilles, to  Algiers.  The  expense  involved  (this  last  trip 
cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  M  250,  even  though  special 
rates  were  obtained  nearly  everywhere)  of  necessity  de- 
ters many  of  the  pupils  from  going,  although  the  cham- 
ber of  commerce  or  other  patrons  of  the  school  usually 
contrive  to  subscribe  a  portion  of  the  general  expense. 

As  has  already  been  suggested,  commercial  education 
in  Germany  owes  much  to  private  and  semi-public  initi- 
ative for  the  inception  of  many  of  its  un- 

Leipzig 
dertakings.     The   Public    Commercial   In-   Commercial 

stitute   at   Leipzig    (Oeffentliche   Handels-      Institute: 

Foundation. 
lehranstalt) ,  probably  the  most  represen- 
tative of  this  latter  type  of  institution,  is  only  a  single 
instance  of  the  progressiveness  of  the  merchants  of  that 
city.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
famous,  of  the  modern  commercial  schools.  Founded 
way  back  in  the  early  30's,  thanks  to  the  enterprise  of 
the  two  great  commercial  bodies  of  the  city,  the  Retail 
Merchants'  Guild  and  the  Corporation  of  Wholesale 
Merchants,  it  has  long  exercised  a  dominant  part  in  the 
preparation  of  the  future  tradesmen.^ 

1  The  information  about  this  Leipzig  school  has  been  gathered 
from  the  75th  anniversary  report  and  other  documents  of  the 
institution,  as  well  as  from  the  writer's  personal  observations 
gained  through  a  visit  in  the  spring  of  1912. 


172  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

In  1831,  when  the  school  was  establit-hcd,  the  control  of 
commerce,  as  well  as  industry,  was  still  in  the  hands  of 
the  guilds.  To  be  sure  there  were  some  merchants  out- 
side of  these  two  powerful  organizations  who  were  al- 
lowed to  have  their  own  apprentices,  but  the  oversight 
of  even  these  was  assumed  by  the  two  great  corpora- 
tions, sometimes  acting  independently,  sometimes  con- 
jointly. In  those  days  the  term  of  apprenticeship  was 
four  years,  instead  of  three  as  at  present,  and  at  its 
conclusion  the  apprentice  received  a  certificate  signed 
and  sealed  by  the  guild  authorities,  which  certificate 
was  said  to  have  been  much  more  imposing  than  the 
young  man's  know-ledge  of  business  management.  How- 
ever one-sided  and  inadequate  the  practical  training 
may  have  been,  the  holder  was  even  less  satisfactorily 
equipped  on  the  theoretical  side,  for  he  had  had  nothing 
beyond  the  training  of  the  Volksschule.  In  order  to 
meet  this  situation  the  Commercial  Institute  was  pro- 
jected, and  the  apprentice  school,  very  similar  to  the 
ordinary  commercial  continuation  school  of  the  present, 
was  the  first  department  organized.  The  scheme  devel- 
oped until  to-day  the  school  includes  two  departments, 
with  two  divisions  in  each: 

(1)  Apprentices'    department,  with  two  divisions,  a  three-year 
course,  and  a  special  one-year  course;  and 

(2)  Scholars'    department    {Schuler  Abteilung),   likewise  with  a 
three-year  course  and  a  one-year  special  course. 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  173 

By  virtue  of  the  fact  that  the  pupils  in  the  appren- 
tices' department  are  spending  only  part  time  at  the 

school,  twelve  hours  per  week,  in  each  in- 

Courses. 
stance,  they  are  necessarily  Leipzig  boys, 

employed  in  local  commercial  houses,  although  foreign- 
ers may  be  admitted  to  the  one-year  course  in  case  they 
can  prove  an  educational  equipment  equivalent  to  the 
certificate  for  the  one-year  volunteer  service  demanded 
of  natives.  The  ordinary  school  fees  are  one  hundred 
marks  per  year,  with  a  reduction  of  one-quarter  for  sons 
and  apprentices  of  former  members  of  the  Retail  Mer- 
chants' Guild.  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  three- 
year  course  are  supposed  to  have  completed  the  Biirger- 
schule;  at  least  the  examinations  in  German  and  arith- 
metic that  they  must  pass  are  such  as  would  be  required 
of  a  boy  in  the  top  class  of  such  a  school.  The  three- 
year  apprentices'  course  subserves  the  same  general  pur- 
pose as  the  commercial  continuation  school  course  previ- 
ously described,^  a  business  apprenticeship.  Considerably 
more  may  be  expected  of  them,  however,  for  they  have 
practically  all  completed  the  Biirgerschide  course,  which 
extends  one  year  longer  than  the  Volksschule,  and  in- 
cludes a  modern  language  (French).  Furthermore,  the 
continuation  of  the  modern  language  study,  together 
with  the  advent  of  a  second  language,  and  the  twelve 

*  It  should  be  noted  that  Leipzig  being  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony, 
the  school  owes  no  allegiance  to  the  Prussian  authorities. 


171  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

hours  per  week  for  three  years,  as  opposed  to  only  eight 
hours  in  the  case  of  the  continuation  schools,  allow  for 
considerable  broadening  and  enriching  of  the  course. 
The  onc-ycar  special  course  in  this  department  is  like- 
wise frequented  by  boys  who  arc  in  active  business. 
These  fellows  have  already  completed  the  work  at  a  six- 
year  higher  school,  where  they  have  studied  both  French 
and  English,  and  where  the  other  subjects,  aside  from 
commercial  branches,  were  probably  very  similar  to 
those  found  in  the  program  of  the  Frankfort  school.^ 
The  three-year  course  in  the  scholars'  department  pre- 
supposes the  same  previous  training  as  the  correspond- 
ing course  in  the  apprentices'  department.  These  boys 
are  willing  to  devote  all  their  time  for  three  years  to  a 
very  specialized  preparation  for  business  life.  The 
one-j'-ear  course  in  this  same  department  is  for  boys 
somewhat  more  advanced  intellectually,  by  virtue  of 
the  fact  that  they  have  attended  a  higher  school,  pos- 
sess the  one-year  military  service  privilege,  and  are  able 
to  spend  their  whole  time  for  a  year  at  a  commercial 
school.  It  is  decidedly  difficult  to  translate  German 
school  progress  into  American  terms,  but,  roughly 
speaking,  the  three-year  course  of  the  scholars'  depart- 
ment corresponds  closely  to  an  American  high  school 
of  commerce,  and  has  the  same  general  problems  to 
meet.  It  is  built  upon  an  elementary  school  course, 
» See  p.  156. 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL    SCHOOLS 


175 


one  year  longer  than  ours,  which  includes  the  study  of 
a  foreign  language,  and  consequently  it  sends  its  pupils 
forth,  theoretically,  at  least,  at  exactly  the  same  age  as 
our  high  schools. 

The   distribution   of  subjects   in  the  three-year   ap- 
prentices' course  is  given  herewith,  whereas  that  of  the 

special    apprentice    course   will    be    found    .         „     , 
^  '^^  Apprentices' 

later  in  conjunction  with  the  program  of    Three-Year 
the  other  one-year  course:  ourse. 


LEIPZIG  COMMERCIAL  INSTITUTE 

Apprentices'  Department — Three-Year  Course 
Week  Hours 


Subjects 


iir 


II 


German  language 

English  language 

French  language 

Commercial  arithmetic 

Commercial  science 

Counting-room  work  and  Correspond- 
ence   

Bookkeeping 

Commercial  geography 

Penmanship 

Stenography 

Totals 


12 


12 


12 


*  The  lowest  class. 


As  far  as  the  entrance  requirements   are  concerned 
the   three-year   course   of  the  scholars'   department   is 


176  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

about  on  a  par  with  tlie  corresponding  course  of  the 

apprentices'  department.    The  high  fees,  which  average 

three  hundred  marks  ^  for  each  year  (with 

c  o  ars       ^  twenty-five  per  cent,  discount  for  sons  of 
Department. 

members  of  the  old  Retail  Merchants' 
Guild),  and  are  consequently  twice  as  great  as  in  the 
regular  classical  secondary  schools,  exercise  a  significant 
selective  influence  on  the  student  body.  This  influence  is 
still  further  strengthened  by  the  requirement  of  French 
in  the  admission  examination.  Thus,  the  entire  student 
body  is  recruited  from  the  Biirgerschulen  and  the  vari- 
ous types  of  "higher  schools." 

One  must  be  impressed  by  the  scope  of  subject  mat- 
ter in  the  program  given  below,  as  well  as  the  very 
large  number  of  hours  of  class  work.  It  certainly  rep- 
resents a  task  fifty  per  cent,  greater  than  could  prob- 
ably be  found  in  any  American  school  of  similar  grade, 
and  furnishes  only  another  instance  of  the  terrific  econ- 
omic pressure  behind  the  German  schoolboy.  Ameri- 
can teachers  complain  that  five  subjects  and  twenty- 
five  hours  per  week  constitute  too  heavy  a  program, 
yet  here  is  a  program  that  contains  more  than  twice 
as  many  subjects  and  nearly  fifty  per  cent,  more  hours 
of  required  work.  The  time  allotment  of  subjects  is  as 
follows: 

^  Foreigners  are  charged  five  hundred  marks  per  year  in  each 
class. 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS 


177 


LEIPZIG  COMMERCIAL  INSTITUTE 

Scholars'  Department — Three-Year  Course 
Week  Hours 


Subjects 


Class 
III 


Class 
II 


Class 
I 


German  language 

English  language  and  correspondence. 

French  language  and  correspondence. 

Mathematics 

Commercial  arithmetic 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Technology  and  Commodities  of  com- 
merce   

General  and  Commercial  geography . . 

General  and  Commercial  history .... 

Commercial  theory,  Commercial  and 
Banking  law 

Counting-room  work,  Correspondence 
and  Bookkeeping 

Economics 

Penmanship 

Stenography 

Gymnastics 

Totals 

Electives : 

Spanish  language 

Italian  language 

Russian  language 


34 


35 


37 


The  similarity   between  the   problem  of  this   three- 
year  course  in  the  scholars'  department  and  that  of  our 
own  commercial  high  schools  would  seem     course  of 
to  warrant  a  more  than  passing  attention        Study. 
to  the  course  of  study .^     One  cannot  be  too  often  re- 

*  The  subjoined  material  on  the  course  of  study  has  been  adapted 
freely  from  the  yearbook  of  the  school,  Bericht  iiher  die  Oeffentliche 
Handelslehranstalt  zu  Leipzig,  1911-1912,  pp.  48-55. 


ITS  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

minded  that  the  German  economic  conditions  are  not 
American  economic  conditions,  but  such  a  choice  of 
subject  matter  is  indicative  of  one  of  the  best  of  the 
German  attempts  to  meet  a  situation  that  has  many 
points  of  resemblance  with  our  own. 

German  occupies  a  very  important  pkxce.     Indeed,  if 

one  takes  account  of  the  correspondence  which  figures 

under  another  rubric,  it  receives  more  at- 

I.  German. 

tention  than  any  other  single  subject,  five 
hours  per  week  the  first  year,  four  hours  the  second 
year,  and  five  hours  the  third  year.  The  first  year  is 
devoted  to  the  reading  and  explanation  of  numerous 
poems  and  prose  selections,  together  with  some  elemen- 
tary rhetoric,  while  the  other  two  years  are  spent  chiefly 
upon  the  national  classics,  Lessing,  Schiller,  and  Goethe, 
the  drama,  and  the  development  of  German  literature. 
Every  three  or  four  weeks  throughout  the  course  a  writ- 
ten essay  is  prepared,  and  every  week  during  the  last 
two  years  there  is  a  class  discussion  by  the  pupils  on  a 
topic  chosen  by  them,  as  well  as  reports  from  time  to 
time  on  their  outside  reading.  Aside  from  the  topics 
of  some  of  the  essays  it  would  be  quite  difficult  to  dif- 
ferentiate this  from  the  course  in  the  mother  tongue 
at  an  ordinary  school.  Subjects  like  those  appended 
betray  a  decided  commercial  bias:  "Why  should  the 
merchant  learn  foreign  languages?";  "Leipzig  as  a  com- 
mercial  center";   "Leipzig  streets   at  the   time  of  the 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  179 

annual  fair";  "England's  commerce";  "The  significance 
of  rivers  in  trade."  The  titles  of  most  of  the  essays, 
however,  reflect  the  dominant  literary  emphasis  of  the 
course. 

French  (14  week  hours),  English  (14),  Spanish  (4, 
optional),  Italian  (2,  optional),  and  Russian  (3,  op- 
tional), represent  the  modern  languages  j.  Modem 
taught  in  the  school,  named  in  the  order  languages, 
of  the  pupils'  accomplishment  at  the  end  of  the  course. 
Although  French  and  English  receive  the  same  time 
allotment  in  the  school  program,  the  former  must  be 
accorded  the  first  place  on  account  of  the  greater  role 
it  plays  in  the  preliminary  education  of  the  pupils. 
Only  in  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  a  few  other  commer- 
cial centers  that  have  large  relations  with  England,  has 
the  war  specter  been  displaced  by  the  commercial  real- 
ity, and,  even  in  these  places,  the  government  regula- 
tions put  French  first  in  the  higher  schools,  for  these 
are  the  intellectual  nurseries  of  the  subsequent  army 
officers.  Commercial  needs,  reading,  conversation,  and 
correspondence  constitute  the  center  of  interest  here,  al- 
though some  time  is  found  in  English  for  the  considera- 
tion of  short  literary  masterpieces,  and  in  French  some 
longer  selection,  like  Moliere's  "L'Avare,"  is  read.  Much 
less  can  be  accomplished  in  the  elective  Spanish  and 
Italian,  while  the  time  devoted  to  Russian  can  do  little 
more  than  introduce  the  pupils  to  the  language.     The 


ISO  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

important  trade  relations  between  Leipzig  and  Russia 
account  for  the  presence  of  the  last-named  language. 

In  accordance  with  the  prevailing  German  practice, 

mathematics  is  differentiated  from  arithmetic.     In  the 

first  year   (3  hours  per  week)    algebra  is 

3.  Mathematics. 

covered  through  simple  equations  of  the 
first  degree  in  one  unknown  quantity;  and  plane  geome- 
try extends  through  the  consideration  of  the  quadrilat- 
eral, including  simple  constructions,  without  proof.  In 
the  second  year  (3  hours  per  week)  algebra  is  continued 
through  involution,  evolution,  and  simultaneous  equa- 
tions of  the  first  degree;  and  plane  geometry  is  com- 
pleted, covering  circles,  inscribed  and  circumscribed  fig- 
ures, areas,  more  difficult  constructions,  with  proofs,  ra- 
tio and  proportion,  and  area  of  the  circle.  In  the  third 
year  (3  hours  per  week)  algebra  includes  logarithms, 
quadratic  equations,  interest  and  annuities;  trigonome- 
try is  limited  to  computations  on  right,  isosceles,  and 
oblique  triangles,  regular  polygons,  and  parallelograms; 
and  solid  geometry  is  likewise  taken  up  from  a  practical 
point  of  view,  devoting  most  of  the  time  to  computation 
of  the  contents  and  areas  of  the  prism,  cylinder,  pyramid, 
truncated  pyramid,  cone,  truncated  cone,  and  sphere. 

Commercial  arithmetic  (9  week  hours)  covers  the 
same  general  field  as  already  outlined  in  the  case  of  the 
continuation  schools,  save  that  everything  is  treated 
more  thoroughly  and  fundamentally.     Furthermore,  it 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  181 

pays  particular  attention  to  the  discount  system  of  the 
Imperial  Bank,  evaluation  of  foreign  coinage,  foreign 
bills  of  exchange,  conversion  of  the  latter 

4.  Commercial 

to  and  from  German  equivalents,  with  Arithmetic, 
charges  therefor,  foreign  stock  exchanges  and  their 
market  reports,  with  the  charges  in  vogue  on  these  ex- 
changes, and  considerable  practice  in  calculating  the 
values  of  foreign  securities  in  the  foreign  monetary 
units.'^ 

Physics   (2  hours  per  week  for  the  first  two  years) 
covers,  the  first  year:    the  topics  of  statics  and  me- 
chanics of  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  bod- 
s' Physics. 

ies;  acoustics;  heat;  and  the  second  year: 
optics;  magnetism;  and  electricity. 

Chemistry  (2  hours  per  week  for  the  last  two  years) 
includes,  the  first  3'ear:  metals  and  metalloids;  oxides; 
sulphides;      haloids;      reduction;      atomic 

6.  Chemistry. 

theory;  mdirect  action  of  oxides,  sul- 
phides, and  chlorides.  Substances  from  commodities  of 
commerce,  technology,  and  mineralogy  (caoutchouc 
and  gutta  percha,  iron  and  steel,  the  most  important 
ores,  precious  stones,  and  jewels).  Second  year:  hy- 
drates, salts,  their  composition,  decomposition,  and  des- 
ignation;  electrolysis;   reduction;   hydrids.     Substances 

/  ^  The  problems  already  quoted  from  the  examinations  in  the 
Frankfort  school,  pp.  166-8,  will  throw  a  httle  further  hght  on 
the  character  of  the  work. 


182  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

from  coniinoditics  of  commerce  and  technology:  the 
most  important  chemicals  of  commerce;  metallurgy; 
fossilized  combustibles;  petroleum. 

Commodities  of  commerce  and  technology    (2  hours 

per  week  in  the  last  year)  treat  textile  fibers,  and  the 

most  important  spinning  and  weaving  ma- 

7.  Commodities 

of  Commerce     cliincs;  papcr;  hides,  tanning,  and  leather; 

and  Technology. 

tobacco;  dyesturfs,  and  dyemg;  fats  and 
oils,  soap  and  candles;  sugar,  and  the  products  of  fer- 
mentation; pottery,  and  glass. 

All  the  science,  especially  chemistry,  bears  directly 
upon  the  commodities  of  trade.  It  therefore  concerns 
itself,  not  so  much  with  scientific  laws  and  theories,  as 
with  the  actual  operation  of  those  laws,  so  that  one 
might  better  call  it  applied  science.  There  is  no  inten- 
tion of  training  expert  physicists  and  chemists,  but  of 
giving  a  basis  of  knowledge  which  will  enable  the  stu- 
dents to  enter  more  intelligently  into  the  world's  trade, 
to  differentiate  grades  of  wares  and  approximate  their 
values,  to  learn  something  of  the  ordinary  adulterations 
and  of  methods  of  detecting  them.  This  is  confined  to 
the  simpler  objective  tests,  intricate  chemical  analyses 
forming  no  part  of  the  work  of  this  school.  It  like- 
wise embraces  a  study  of  the  more  important  textiles, 
and  other  raw  materials,  their  source,  cultivation,  and 
preparation  for  the  market. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  commodities  of  com- 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  183 

merce  and  technology,  trips  to  industrial  plants  in  Leip- 
zig and  other  towns  are  regularly  undertaken  every 
year.  While  the  particular  factories  vary  from  year 
to  year,  and  the  number  of  such  excursions  is  by  no 
means  fixed,  the  character  of  the  enterprises  visited  is 
subjected  to  only  minor  variations.  In  the  school  year 
1912-1913  the  pupils  of  the  one-year  special  course  in 
the  scholars'  division  made  no  fewer  than  twelve  such 
trips,  visiting  the  steel  pen  factory  of  L. in  Leip- 
zig, the  rolling  mill  of  S. Bros,  in  Riesa,  the  ware- 
house of  the  R. Shipping  Co.  in  Riesa,  the  glass 

factory  of  M. &  Son  in  Lommatzsch,  the  buckskin 

factory  of  B. in  Crimmitschau,  the  machine  shop 

and  iron  foundry  of  K. in    Leipzig,    the    tobacco 

warehouse  of  L. in  Leipzig,  the  sugar  factory  of 

K.,  B. &  Co.  in  Schwoitsch,  the  printing  office  of 

the  Leipzig  Neuesten  Nachrichten  in  Leipzig,  the  wor- 
sted spinning  mill  of  G. ,  the  woolen  spinning  and 

weaving  mill  of  B. ,  and  the  dyeing  and  finishing 

works   of   D. ,   the   last   three   all   in   Reichenbach. 

These  towns,  with  one  exception,  range  from  forty  to 
sixty-three  miles  distant  from  Leipzig,  but  the  cheap- 
ness of  third  class  railway  travel  in  Germany  makes 
it  possible  to  visit  even  the  most  remote  at  an  expense 
not  to  exceed  a  dollar  and  a  half  for  the  round  trip 
railroad  fare. 

Geography    (2  hours  per  week  each  year)    concerns 


1S4  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

itself  with  the  physical,  political,  and  economic  geog- 
raphy of  Germany  (first  year),  its  agriculture,  livestock, 
mining,    industry,    commerce,    and    traffic 

8.  Geography. 

facilities;  European  countries  outside  Ger- 
many (second  year) ;  and  the  other  four  grand  divisions 
of  the  globe,  including  German  colonies  and  the  colonial 
question  (third  year). 

History  (2  hours  per  week  each  year)  centers  around 
the  economic  history  of  Germany,  from  the  beginning 

of  the  national  commerce  and  industry  up 

9.  History. 

to  the  present  day.  This  practically 
means  the  history  of  modern  times,  from  the  period  of 
the  Renaissance  onward.  It  necessarily  devotes  con- 
siderable attention  to  the  progress  of  France,  with  fre- 
quent references  to  England  and  the  Low  Countries, 
for  it  is  impossible  to  treat  adequately  the  commercial 
development  of  any  single  European  state  by  itself. 
The  familiar  "drum  and  trumpet"  history  is  fortunately 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Much  can  be  accomplished  in  the  German  commer- 
cial higher  schools,  both  in  history  and  geography,  even 
in  such  a  brief  space  of  time,  for  the  physical  and  po- 
litical groundwork  has  been  already  covered  in  the 
lower  schools,  and  the  major  part  of  the  time  may  be 
devoted  to  purely  economic  questions. 

Commercial  theory,  commercial  and  banking  law  (3 
week    hours),    and   counting-room   work,    bookkeeping, 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  185 

and  correspondence  (6  week  hours)  cover  substantially 
the  same  general  field  as  the  commercial  science,  corre- 
spondence, and  bookkeeping  in  the  commer-  ^^  Professional 
cial  continuation  schools,  except  that  this  Subjects. 
course  emphasizes  the  theoretical  side  of  the  questions 
involved,  and  treats  everything  from  a  broader  point  of 
view,  pays  more  attention  to  the  exposition  of  the  bills 
of  exchange  regulations,  brokerage,  commercial  paper 
(including  stocks,  bonds,  checks,  and  the  like),  bills  of 
lading,  banking  (especially  in  relation  with  the  Im- 
perial Bank),  and  in  general  deals  with  the  problems 
of  the  large  merchant  with  international  connections 
and  interests. 

Economics  (2  hours  per  week  in  the  last  year)  dis- 
cusses the  fundamental  principles  of  economics;  theory 
of  production;  theory  of  exchange  of  com- 

,.,.  .,,  •    1         J?  .  •  II.  Economics. 

modities,  with  special  reference  to  prices 
and  money  conditions;  theory  of  money,  of  credit,  of 
traffic  arrangements,  and  of  mercantile  policy;  theory 
of  income,  with  reference  to  the  social  question;  the 
most  important  aspects  of  the  theory  of  consumption; 
occasional  references  to  the  history  of  economics. 

Penmanship  (3  week  hours)  gives  opportunity  for 
improving  the  handwriting,  in  both  the  German  and  the 
Latin   script,  but  it   is   concerned   chiefly 

.   .  12.  Penmanship. 

With  the  writing  of  business  letters,  tran- 
scribing stenographic  dictation    dealing    with    business 


186  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

and  counting-room  subjects,  and  training  the  pupils  in 
the  three  styles  of  letter  formation  in  current  business 
practice. 

The  extremely  diversified  character  of  this  course  of 
study,  averaging  thirteen  required  subjects  each  year, 

will  probably  strike  the  American  reader 
th^c^  ^'  °    ^^^^  unfavorably  at  first  sight.    It  is  quite 

typical,  however,  of  the  course  of  study 
found  generall}^  in  foreign  schools,  where  it  is  the  prac- 
tice to  pursue  many  subjects  throughout  the  course, 
rather  than  to  study  a  few  subjects  intensively,  and  then 
drop  them  in  order  to  take  up  others  in  a  similar  intensive 
fashion.  The  foreign  method  of  procedure  unquestion- 
ably makes  for  a  better  rounded  development,  and  en- 
ables the  teacher  to  adapt  his  work  progressively  to  the 
growing  intellectual  power  of  his  pupils  much  more  satis- 
factorily than  does  the  halting,  uneven  advance  that 
characterizes  the  American  practice.  The  American  meth- 
od rather  suggests  the  movement  of  an  army  when  the 
commander  occupies  all  the  available  roads  in  sending 
his  cavalry  ahead  a  day's  march,  uses  the  same  roads 
for  his  infantry  the  second  day,  and  brings  up  his  artil- 
lery the  third  day.  Carrying  out  the  same  figure,  the 
German  would  send  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery 
along  simultaneously,  taking  three  times  as  long  for 
each  particular  arm  of  the  service  to  cover  the  distance, 
but  ultimately  accomplishing  the  movement  in  the  same 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  187 

length  of  time,  and  being  immeasurably  better  prepared 
at  any  particular  moment  to  meet  the  enemy.  Further- 
more, the  German  teacher  does  not  attempt  to  exhaust 
the  subject  he  may  be  handling,  but,  by  an  intelligent 
selection  of  material,  strives  to  give  the  pupil  as  much 
as  he  has  time  and  mentality  for  assimilating,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  subserve  the  ultimate  purpose  in  view. 
Since  the  one-year  special  courses,  whether  for  ap- 
prentices or  for  "scholars,"  admit  only  holders  of  the 
one-year   volunteer  certificate,  the  pupils 

here  enter  one  or  two  years  older  than  in       _    ' 

Courses. 

the  two  three-year  courses.  Those  in  the 
scholars'  course  appear  to  be  a  particularly  intelligent 
group  of  young  men,  with  the  Gymnasium  boys  showing 
up  rather  less  favorably  than  those  who  have  come  up 
from  the  i?eaZ-schools.  This  is  not  so  surprising  as  it 
might  seem  at  first  sight,  for  one  is  undoubtedly  com- 
paring the  weaker  of  one  group  with  the  stronger  of 
the  other.  As  the  name  implies,  all  in  the  apprentices* 
course  have  already  chosen  their  life-work,  and  are  em- 
ployed in  commercial  houses  in  Leipzig,  while  those  in 
the  scholars'  course  are  preparing  themselves  through 
scientific  study  of  the  most  important  branches  of  com- 
mercial activity  for  counting-room  positions  in  whole- 
sale businesses,  factories,  or  banks.  The  former  repre- 
sents the  peculiar  German  condition,  and  is  therefore 
not  so  interesting  to  us,  but  the  latter  is  more  deserv- 


188 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 


ing  of  our  careful  consideration,  for  the  problem  ap- 
proaches more  nearly  what  we  in  America  have  to  face. 
The  subjects  of  instruction  and  the  time  allotment  of 
the  two  courses  are  as  follows: 


LEIPZIG  COMMERCIAL  INSTITUTE.    ONE  YEAR 
SPECIAL  COURSES 

Week  Hours 


Subjects 

Scholars' 
Course 

Apprentices' 
Course 

English    language    and    Commercial 
correspondence 

French  language  and  Commercial  cor- 
respondence   

Commercial  arithmetic 

Commercial  and  Banking  law 

Bookkeeping 

German  commercial  correspondence.  . 

Economics 

5 

5 
4 
2 
4 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
3 
1 

2 

2 
2 
1 
2 
1 

Commercial  theory 

1 

Commercial  history 

Economic  geography 

1 

Commodities  of  commerce 

Penmanship 

Totals 

German  language  for  foreigners 

Electives: 

Spanish  language 

32 
2 

3 

2 
3 

2 

12 

Itahan  language 

Russian  language 

Stenography 

These  two  one-year  courses  are  merely  abbreviated 
forms  of  corresponding  three-year  courses,  the  differ- 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  189 

ence  being  that  the  pupils  of  the  long  courses  are  gradu- 
ates of  the  lower  (in  this  case  the  Burgerschulen) ,  and 

those  of  the  short  courses  are  all  former      _ 

One-Year 

pupils  of  the  higher  or  secondary  schools,  vs.  Three- 
On  account  of  the  difference  in  age  at  en- 
tering, the  pupils  of  the  short  courses  have  accomplished 
substantially  as  much  at  the  end  as  have  those  of  the 
longer  courses.  The  slight  variations  in  terminology, 
such  as  commercial  science  instead  of  commercial 
theory,  commercial  geography  instead  of  economic 
geography,  should  cause  no  difficulty.  In  general 
one  may  say  that  commercial  science  is  the  term  com- 
monly used  in  connection  with  lower  commercial  work, 
and  commercial  theory  in  connection  with  higher  com- 
mercial work,  although  it  would  be  impossible  to  sub- 
stantiate this  distinction  universally. 

In  comparing  the  one-year  and  the  three-year  course 
of  the  scholars'  department,  it  is  evident  that  the  actual 
attainments  of  the  pupils  at  the  end  are  not  far  apart. 
The  one-year  pupils  have  only  five  hours  each  of  French 
and  English,  but  the  much  greater  amount  of  previous 
study  of  these  languages  makes  it  possible  to  spend  this 
time  almost  exclusively  on  the  commercial  side.  As  for 
the  other  modern  languages,  the  time  is  almost  exactly 
the  same  as  in  the  three-year  course.  The  mathematics 
of  the  three-year  course  has  already  been  covered  by  the 
one-year  pupils  in  their  previous  school  work.    In  com- 


190  COMMERCIAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

mercial  arithmetic  it  is  true  that  the  short-course  pupils 
are  considerably  at  a  disadvantage.  Bookkeeping  (4 
hours),  commercial  correspondence  (2),  commercial  and 
banking  law  (2),  and  commercial  theory  (1)  of  the 
short  course  exactly  balance  commercial  theory,  com- 
mercial and  banking  law  (3),  and  counting-room  work, 
correspondence  and  bookkeeping  (6)  of  the  long  course, 
and  the  topics  treated  lie  in  the  same  general  fields. 
The  general  physics  and  chemistry  of  the  three-year 
course  have  already  been  covered  by  the  one-year  pu- 
pils in  their  previous  work,  and  the  slight  advantage 
of  the  latter  in  commodities  of  commerce  just  about 
makes  up  for  the  lack  of  commercial  applications  in 
this  earlier  science  study.  The  net  accomplishments  in 
both  history  and  geography  are  similarly  nearly  equiva- 
lent, and  the  courses  in  economics  are  identical. 

In  like  manner  one  might  measure  up  the  relative  at- 
tainments of  the  two  courses  of  the  apprentices'  depart- 
ment; nevertheless,  when  all  has  been  said  and  done, 
there  is  no  escape  from  the  fact  that,  however  nearly 
equivalent  the  attainments  of  the  pupils  of  the  two 
courses  in  each  department  may  seem  to  be,  the  posses- 
sion of  the  one-year  military  service  certificate  gives  the 
pupils  of  each  of  the  short  courses  a  distinct  advantage 
over  their  fellows  in  the  corresponding  longer  courses. 
The  former  will  invariably  receive  the  preference,  and 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  191 

will  ultimately  occupy  a  higher  average  of  positions  in 

the  commercial  world. 

In  1912-1913  the  total  number  of  pupils  in  the  school 

was  977,  of  whom  693  and  76  were  in  the  three-year 

and  the   one-year  course   of  the   appren- 

.  Enrollment. 

tices     department,    respectively,    and    165 

and  43  were  in  the  corresponding  divisions  of  the  schol- 
ars' department.  Such  is  the  reputation  of  this  Leipzig 
school  that  it  has  drawn  pupils  from  all  over  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  as  well  as  from  every  country  in  Europe, 
from  South  America,  from  the  United  States,  from  Asia, 
and  even  from  far  away  Australia.  During  the  year 
1910-1911  there  were  no  fewer  than  49  foreign  pupils 
on  the  roll,  England  and  most  of  the  other  European 
countries  being  represented  in  the  list. 

The  teachers  are  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors, and,  while  this  institution  is  under  private  control, 
the    quality    of   the    teaching    staff   is    in 
every  respect  equal  to  that  of  the  state        ^^^  "^^ 
higher    schools.      The     following    notices 
from  the  school  yearbook,^  regarding  two  of  the  perma- 
nent appointees  during  the  year  1912-1913,  will  indicate 
something  of  the  high  standard  demanded: 

"Karl  Prill,  teacher  of  commercial  science,  commer- 
cial arithmetic,  and  German,  was  born  in  Neuhaldens- 

*  Bericht  iiber  die  Oeffentliche  Handelslenransialt  zu  Leipzig,  1912- 
1913,  p.  18. 


192  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

leben,  ^larch  6,  1880.  He  attended  the  Gymnasium  of 
his  native  town,  from  Easter,  1891,  to  Easter,  1900,  and, 
after  being  graduated  therefrom,  took  up  the  study  of 
jurisprudence.  In  1905  he  entered  the  Leipzig  College 
of  Commerce,  where  he  passed  the  commercial  teachers' 
examination  in  1908.  For  several  years  he  was  en- 
gaged in  business,  and  from  Easter,  1910,  until  Easter, 
1911,  he  conducted  the  commercial  science  course  for 
the  apprentices  of  the  firm  of  August  Polich,  in  Leipzig. 
From  Easter,  1911,  until  Easter,  1912,  he  was  assistant 
teacher  in  our  school,  after  having  repeatedly  served  as 
substitute  since  1908." 

"Friedrich  Stahl,  teacher  of  history,  German,  geogra- 
phy, and  English,  was  born  at  Bickenbach,  March  11, 
1882.  After  being  graduated  from  the  Bensheim  Gym- 
nasium, in  February,  1902,  he  studied  history,  German 
and  English  languages  and  literature,  as  well  as  juris- 
prudence and  political  science,  at  Giessen,  Berlin,  and 
Heidelberg.  He  passed  his  state  examination  in  1907, 
was  sent  to  the  Darmstadt  Gymnasium  for  his  prac- 
tice teaching,  and  at  Easter,  1908,  received  a  substi- 
tute's appointment  in  the  Butzbach  Realschule.  After 
passing  his  second  teachers'  examination,  in  the  fall  of 
1909,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Prince  of  Schaum- 
burg-Lippe,  as  permanent  teacher  in  the  Biickeburg 
Lyceum,  and  as  tutor  in  the  prince's  household.    In  the 


SECONDARY    COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  193 

autumn  of  1912  he  was  appointed  on  the  staff  of  the 
Commercial  Institute." 

These  represent  two  types  of  teachers,  the  first  of 
professional  subjects,  and  the  second  of  academic  sub- 
jects. Each  had  spent  five  years  in  university  study, 
and  each  had  passed  the  professional  examination  set 
to  test  teaching  ability.  This,  by  the  way,  is  a  real 
test  of  skill  in  handling  a  class  in  the  schoolroom,  com- 
ing at  the  end  of  a  more  or  less  extended  period  of 
practice  teaching.  In  the  second  case,  it  covered  an 
entire  school  year,  and  required  practically  the  whole 
time  of  the  candidate;  in  the  first  case,  it  was  under- 
taken in  connection  with  the  work  at  the  college  of 
commerce.  These  young  men,  both  over  thirty  years 
wf  age,  had  demonstrated  their  fund  of  general  knowl- 
edge of  a  university  grade,  of  professional  acquaintance 
with  the  subjects  they  were  to  teach  (in  the  case  of  the 
teacher  of  commercial  subjects,  gained  after  actual  ex- 
perience  in  the  business  world),  and  of  proved  ability 
in  teaching  those  subjects.  As  one  runs  through  the  list 
of  the  other  teachers  in  the  school,  they  will  all  be 
found  to  measure  up  to  this  same  high  standard.  No 
fewer  than  twelve  of  the  twenty-seven  regular  teachers 
hold  the  doctor's  degree,  and  eleven  of  the  staff  are  also 
teachers  in  the  Leipzig  College  of  Commerce. 

The  various  sources  of  support  drawn  upon  to  meet 
the  running  expenses  are  typical  of  what  one  would  find 


194  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

in  many   commercial   as  well  as   industrial   schools   in 

Germany.     Fees  and  income  from  the  invested  funds 

of   the  old  Merchants'  Guild,  which  was 
Support. 

dissolved  in  1888,  furnish  the  major  part  of 

this  sum,  while  the  city  authorities,  the  Saxon  govern- 
ment, and  the  chamber  of  commerce  make  annual 
grants,  with  the  latter  body  standing  behind  to  make 
up  any  deficit  that  may  arise.  This  shows  an  active 
public  sentiment  and  a  degree  of  cooperation  which  it 
would  be  difficult  to  duplicate  in  this  country. 

Each  of  these  two  great  commercial  institutes,  Frank- 
fort, a  municipal  school,  and  Leipzig,  a  semi-public 
foundation,  presents  peculiar  characteris- 
e  ew  ^j^g^  ^^^^  taken  together,  they  represent 
the  modern  commercial  movement  in  the 
middle  grade  of  the  German  educational  organization. 
The  older  school  subjects  did  not  respond  with  suffi- 
cient promptness  to  the  changing  needs  of  modern  life. 
The  former  system  of  apprenticeship  likewise  failed  to 
meet  the  demands  imposed  upon  it.  This  new  move- 
ment then  attempts  to  combine  theory  with  practice, 
and  to  that  extent  conforms  to  our  best  modern  thought ; 
on  the  one  hand,  not  the  old  scholastic  theory  bristling 
with  medisevalism,  but  a  theory  dealing  in  the  problems 
of  the  modern  trade  relations;  on  the  other  hand,  not 
a  stultifying  period  of  indenture,  when  the  apprentice 
often  had  a  modicum  of  time  to  devote  to  learning  his 


SECONDARY   COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS  195 

master's  vocation  during  the  intervals  of  acting  as 
household  drudge  and  even  "nursemaid."  The  old  sys- 
tem is  gone  forever,  and  a  new  one  that  replaces  diffu- 
sion of  interest  by  concentration  of  effort  has  taken  its 
place. 


V 


CHAPTER  VI 

COLLEGES   OF   COMMERCE 
/    Arjlie  head  of  the  line  oLfnmmpminl  pHnf.aiai^nj4-in- 

stitutions   in   Germany  stand  the   Handelshochschulen, 

or  Colleges  of  Commerce.    Although  these 
Status. 

are   not   officially    classed   as   universities, 

yet  the  standard  of  admission  is  practically  the  same  as 
for  the  older  philosophical  foundations,  and  the  grade 
of  both  teachers  and  work  is  on  essentially  the  same 
high  level.  The  establishment  of  these  institutions  rep- 
resents only  one  phase  of  the  great  struggle  between 
humanism  and  realism  that  has  been  so  bitterly  waged, 
especially  in  the  continental  nations,  for  decades,  almost 
for  centuries.  With  us  in  America  the  strife  has  not 
been  so  acrimonious,  for  here  in  the  new  world  the 
power  of  tradition  does  not  seem  so  invulnerable  as  in 
the  older,  more  stratified  civilizations.  Not  that  hu- 
manistic culture  is  absolutely  any  less  real,  or  any  less 
valuable  to-day  than  formerly,  but  the  time  has  now 
admittedly  come  when  it  no  longer  enjoys  a  monopoly 
of  culture;  it  must  share  its  place  of  honor  with  the 

more  dynamic,  if  perhaps  the  more  mundane  culture  of 

196 


COLLEGES   OF   COMMERCE  197 

realism.     In  official  educational  circles,  this  point  was 
marked  in  France  by  the  new  program  of  secondary 
education  of  1902,  while  in  Germany  this  same  position 
was  attained  two  years  earlier  in  the  Royal  Decree  of 
the  Emperor  in  1900.     In  each  of  these  two  countries 
the    graduates   of   the   humanistic    and   the   "modern" 
courses  enjoy  essentially  the  same  university  and  other 
privileges.     The  establishment  of  the  commercial  col-\ 
lege  is  a  result,  rather  than  even  a  contributory  cause,/ 
of  Germany's  commercial  progress,  for  Leipzig,  the  old- 7 
est  of  them,  dates  only  from  1898.    But  the  colleges  bid  \ 
fair  in  the  immediate  future  to  enhance  that  progress  ! 
even  more. 

There   are  now    (1913)    six  of  these   institutions   in 
Germany — Leipzig,     Cologne,     Frankfort,     Mannheim, 
Berlin,  and  Munich.    The  college  at  Leip- 
zig is  a  department  of  the  university.    The      J^  ^^.^ 
college  at  Frankfort  has  but  lately  com- 
pleted the  arrangements  which  have  been  pending  for 
several  years  for  its  transformation  into  a  university ;  ^ 
and  the  colleges   at  Berlin,   Cologne,   Mannheim,   and 
Munich  alone  are  independent.     This  results  in  differ- 
ences of  organization,  which,  after  all,  are  but  minor 
matters  to  the  foreigner,  however  important  they  may 
be  to  the  institutions  themselves.     The  Cologne  man, 

^  The  University  of  Frankfort  will  formally  open  its  doors  in  the 
faU  of  1914. 


\ 


198  COMMERCIAL    EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

for  instance,  will  maintain  that  much  of  the  progress 
made  by  his  college  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  head  of 
that  institution  is  a  director  (Studiendirektor) ,  with  an 
indefinite  appointment,  rather  more  like  the  American 
university  president,  while  the  Frankfort  man  will  as- 
sert that  such  a  scheme  threatens  the  very  basis  of  the 
German  Lehrfrciheit,  and  will  insist  that  the  custom 
prevailing  in  Frankfort  of  choosing  a  rector  every  two 
years  results  in  a  much  more  democratic  form  of  gov- 
ernment, and,  indeed,  is  even  superior  to  the  one-year 
rectoral  term  that  obtains  in  the  universities. 

All  in  all  the  college  at  Cologne,  from  its  size  and  im- 
portance, as  well  as  because  it  was  the  first  independent 

^  ,  institution  of  this  kind  in  the  country,  is 

Cologne 

College:  perhaps  the  best  representative  of  the 
Foundation.  Q^pj^an  colleges  of  commerce.  Further- 
more, it  does  not  suffer  from  the  competition  of  rival 
institutions  as  do  most  of  the  others.  In  Berlin  the 
college  of  commerce  must  compete  not  only  with  the 
powerful  university  at  its  very  door,  but  also  with  all 
the  other  institutions  of  corresponding  grade  that  are  to 
be  found  in  or  near  the  capital  city.  When  the  college 
at  Frankfort  is  transformed  into  a  regular  university, 
the  commercial  side  of  the  work  will  probably  be  quite 
overshadowed  by  the  other  faculties.  The  college  at 
Leipzig  is  an  integral  part  of  the  university,  while  the 
colleges  at  both  Mannheim  and  Munich  are  yet  very 


COLLEGES   OF   COMMERCE  199 

young.  They  still  have  their  own  futures  to  make.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  worth  while  describing  this  college 
at  Cologne  at  some  length. 

While  I  am  not  unmindful  of  the  efforts  of  others,  it  is  ^ 
undeniable  that  the  major  part  of  the  credit  for  the 
foundation  of  the  Cologne  school  is  due  to  Gustav  von 
Mevissen,  for  half  a  century  a  resident  of  the  city  and 
one  of  the  leaders  of  its  industrial  life.  For  years  he 
had  spent  freely  both  time  and  money  in  promoting  his 
favorite  scheme,  and,  while  he  did  not  live  to  see  his 
hopes  realized,  he  endowed  it  most  generously  in  his 
will,  and,  at  the  death  of  his  wife,  in  1901,  the  Von 
Mevissen  foundation  was  increased  to  a  million  marks.  O 
The  efforts  of  Von  Mevissen  were  undoubtedly  aided 
by  the  increasing  economic  pressure.  The  business  men 
and  the  great  merchants  of  the  town  had  grown  up 
and  developed  with  the  evolution  of  German  commer- 
cial life.  The  most  thoughtful  began  to  realize  that 
their  sons  and  successors  were  coming  into  completely 
organized  establishments,  and  consequently  would  have 
little  or  none  of  the  perspective  or  fundamental  under- 
standing of  detail  that  comes  through  growing  up  with 
a  business.  This  difficulty  they  hoped  in  some  measure 
to  overcome  by  the  theoretical  training  of  the  Hoch- 
schule.  The  formal  opening  exercises  took  place  May  1, 
1901.  The  list  of  speakers  on  that  occasion  will  give 
some  indication  of  the  character  of  this  movement  for 


200  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

higher  commercial  education  in  Germany,  and  of  the 
forces  that  are  behind  it:  the  mayor  of  Cologne,  the 
director  of  the  school,  the  Prussian  Minister  of  Com- 
merce and  Industry,  the  rector  of  the  neighboring  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn,  the  rector  of  the  higher  technical 
school  at  Aachen,  and  representatives  from  the  cham- 
ber of  commerce  of  Cologne,  the  national  union  for 
commercial  instruction  in  Brunswick,  and  the  mer- 
chants' association  in  Cologne. 

While  the  Von  Mevissen  foundation  at  first  furnished 
about  thirty  per  cent,   of  the  income,  this  proportion 

has  now  decreased  one-third,  although  the 
Cost. 

total    return    from    the    fund    has    nearly 

doubled  in  the  meantime.  In  1909  the  revenue  from 
this  endowment  amounted  to  nearly  65,000  marks;  the 
city  appropriated  more  than  89,000  marks;  and  the  in- 
come from  tuition  fees  brought  in  about  166,000  marks. 
The  total  budget  at  that  time  was  320,506  marks. 
When  one  adds  that  the  new  building  opened  in  Octo- 
ber, 1907,  cost  2,360,500  marks,  and  the  ground  1,360,- 
000  marks,  the  whole  representing  an  investment  of 
more  than  $900,000,  it  is  readily  apparent  that  Cologne 
is  taking  higher  training  for  commercial  purposes  very 
seriously. 

(^  The  fourfold  purpose  of  the  school  is  thus  officially 
expressed:      (1)   to  offer  a  thorough  general  and  com- 


COLLEGES  OF   COMMERCE  201 

mercial   education   to    young   people   who    propose   to 

devote    themselves    to    a    commercial    calling;     (2)    to 

give  prospective  commercial  school  teachers 

Purpose, 
an    opportunity     for    further    theoretical 

and  practical  special  training;  (3)  to  furnish  young 
administrative  and  consular  officials,  secretaries  of 
chambers  of  commerce,  and  the  like  an  opportunity  for 
acquiring  special  mercantile  information;  and  (4)  to 
make  it  possible  for  practical  merchants  and  those  en- 
gaged in  allied  callings  to  render  themselves  more  pro- 
ficient in  certain  branches  of  commercial  lore. 

While  the  two  former  may  be  considered  the  chifef 
aims,  and  the  two  latter  as  accessory,  the  major  con- 
cern of  the  school  has  thus  far  been  centered  around 
the  first  of  the  four  groups.  The  relatively  slight  de- 
mand for  highly  trained  commercial  teachers  may  ac- 
C(5unt  for  the  small  number  of  graduates  of  this  course 
(seventy  from  the  spring  of  1903  to  the  spring  of  1911, 
inclusive).  Furthermore,  the  positions  in  the  adminis- 
trative and  consular  services  have  been  almost  exclu- 
sively filled  from  the  legal  ranks,  and,  although  the 
training  given  in  a  school  of  this  type  would  seem  to 
possess  certain  manifest  advantages  in  these  particular 
occupations,  there  is  apparently  no  immediate  prospect 
of  this  institution  becoming  a  serious  rival  of  the  older 
university  law  faculties. 

The  school  is  a  purely  municipal  institution,  at  least 


202  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GEHMANY 

as  far  as  its  foundation  and  support  are  concerned,  but 
it  was  established  with  the  joint  sanction  of  the  Prus- 
sian ministries  of  commerce  and  industry, 
Government. 

and  cchication,  and  it  is  officially  subject 

to  the  control  of  these  two  authorities.  The  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  board  of  trustees,  presided  over  by 
the  maj'or  of  the  city,  or  his  representative,  and  num- 
bering in  its  membership  an  appointee  of  the  Minister 
of  Commerce  and  Industry,  acting  in  conjunction  with 
the  Minister  of  Education,  to  act  for  the  central  govern- 
ment, the  director  of  the  school,  three  members  of  the 
city  council,  three  members  of  the  teaching  staff  of  the 
school,  and  two  members  of  the  Cologne  Chamber  of 
Commerce.  The  first  three  are  ex  officio  members, 
while  the  others  are  chosen  for  six  years  by  the  city 
council  or  the  chamber  of  commerce.  The  descendants 
of  Gustav  von  Mevissen,  to  whom  the  school  owes  so 
much,  also  have  the  right  to  name  one  member  of  the 
trustees.  This  body  is  responsible  for  the  financial  ad- 
ministration of  the  school,  drawing  up  its  budget  an- 
nually, subject  only  to  the  approval  of  the  city  council, 
which,  of  course,  stands  back  of  it.  The  director  is  the 
executive  officer  of  the  board  of  trustees,  and  he  enjoys 
many  of  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  American  uni- 
versity president,  a  situation  that  is  altogether  un- 
known in  the  regular  German  university  circles.  This 
director,  however,  has  no  legal  voice  in  the  selection  of 


COLLEGES   OF   COMMERCE  203 

the  teaching  staff,  for  he  and  the  other  members  of  the 
regular  force  are  appointed  by  the  mayor  upon  recom- 
mendation of  the  trustees.  The  Minister  of  Commerce 
and  Industry  here  exercises  the  same  power  with  ref- 
erence to  the  appointment  of  the  regular  staff  that  the 
Minister  of  Education  does  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary 
university  faculties,  for  every  such  appointment  is  de- 
pendent upon  ministerial  sanction.  The  much-vaunted 
academic  freedom  in  the  German  universities  is  thus 
subject  to  a  very  real  governmental  regulation.  The 
more  distinctly  professional  policy  of  the  school  is 
largely  in  the  hands  of  a  university  council,  chiefly  ex- 
pressed, however,  through  recommendations  to  the 
board  of  trustees. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  teaching  staff  the  Cologne 
College  of  Commerce  will  compare  more  than  favorably 
with  the  ordinary  university.     As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  of  the  fifteen  so-called  regular        ^^^  ^  ^ 

btan. 

"chairs"  carried  on  the  budget  in  1910,  nine 
were  occupied  by  teachers  who  had  been  called  from  uni- 
versities or  institutions  of  university  rank,  and  four  were 
held  by  men  who  had  been  promoted  from  lower  positions 
in  this  very  institution.  Furthermore,  the  salaries  will 
range  somewhat  higher  than  in  the  less  important  uni- 
versities. This,  too,  has  an  economic  basis,  for,  inas- 
much as  the  regular  university  teacher  is  inclined  to 
look  down   somewhat   on   the   Handelshochschule,  the 


204  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

trustees  were  eompellcd  to  pay  better  salaries  in  order 
to  attract  good  men. 

At  Cologne  the  university  distinction  between  pro- 
fessors and  associate  professors  {ordentliche  Professoren 
and  ausserordentliche  Professoren)  does  not  exist,  and, 
besides,  thanks  to  the  existence  of  some  special  funds, 
the  instructors  (Dozenten)  receive  definite  salaries. 
The  regular  teaching  staff  is  composed  of  professors, 
instructors,  lectors,  and  assistants.  In  addition,  there 
is  a  large  number  of  special  instructors,  lecturers,  and 
conductors  of  conversation  courses,  as  well  as  teachers 
of  stenography.  The  lectors  are  foreign  teachers  of 
their  mother  tongue,  serving  usually  on  short-term  ap- 
pointments, in  order  to  aid  the  ordinary  teaching  staff 
of  the  institution.  Regular  teachers  give  their  full  time 
to  the  work  of  the  school,  while  the  special  appointees 
(as  many  as  seventy  in  number  in  the  winter  semester, 
1911-1912)  are  composed,  among  others,  of  central  and 
local  government  officials,  lawyers,  business  men,  doc- 
tors, instructors  in  the  city  schools,  and  university 
teachers  from  the  neighboring  city  of  Bonn.  Thus,  the 
school  is  able  tcr'offer  almost  any  type  of  instruction 
for  which  there  may  be  a  demand,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  guarantee  thai  it  will  be  given  by  a  specialist 
in  the  subject. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  this  school  is  officially 
recognized  as  of  university  grade,  and  consequently  it  is 


COLLEGES  OP   COMMEECE  205 

open  to  students  on  the  same  conditions  as  the  regular 

universities;  that  is,  to  all  graduates  of  the  secondary  or 

"higher"    schools,    the    Gymnasien,  Real- 

1     ^7  T      •        Students. 

gymnasien,    and    Oberrealschulen.      It    is 

useless  to  deny,  however,  that  in  the  estimation  of  the 
general  public  the  school  has  not  yet  attained  such 
a  position  of  equality  with  the  university.  Foreign 
students  are  freely  admitted,  so  long  as  they  have  at- 
tained a  corresponding  standard  of  proficiency.  A  third 
class  of  students  is  composed  of  young  men  already  em- 
ployed in  commercial,  industrial,  banking,  or  other  simi- 
lar enterprises,  provided  they  have  earned  the  privi- 
lege of  the  army  one-year  volunteer  service,  and  have 
been  at  work  at  least  two  years.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
it  is  possible  for  such  students  to  enter  the  school  one 
year  earlier  than  it  would  have  been  if  they  had  fin- 
ished their  secondary  school  course.  The  one-year  vol- 
unteer privilege  is  reserved  for  those  who  complete  the 
first  six  years  of  the  secondary  school  course  or  its 
equivalent  (i.  e.,  the  Progymnasium,  Realprogymnasi- 
um,  or  Realschule),  and  by  dropping  out  at  this  point, 
they  may  enter  the  school  after  two  years  spent  in  busi- 
ness, whereas,  it  would  have  taken  them  three  years 
more  to  complete  their  secondary  school  course  and  en- 
ter in  the  regular  way.  This  provision  constitutes  no 
lowering  of  standard,  for  it  is  the  general  opinion  of 
the  teaching  staff  that  the  two  years  in  the  business 


206  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

world  develop  the  individual  fully  as  much  as  the  last 
three  years  of  the  secondary  school,  and  therefore  ren- 
der him  thoroughly  competent  to  follow  with  profit  the 
instruction  of  the  school.  A  fourth  group  of  students 
is  composed  of  seminary  men  who  have  already  passed 
their  second  examination  and  propose  to  become  teach- 
ers in  commercial  schools. 

Since  the  summer  semester  of  1907,  women  have  been 
admitted  to  the  school  on  an  equal  footing  with  the 
men,  but  as  yet  they  constitute  only  a  very  small  part 
of  the  regularly  matriculated  students,  roughly  under 
three  per  cent.  There  is  a  considerable  number,  how- 
ever, among  the  other  classes  of  students. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  will  give  further  in- 

Preparation  formation  as  to  the  quality  of  the  student 
of  Students,   body  and  their  preparation  for  the  work. 

Of  this  total  matriculated  enrollment,  in  1910-1911, 

the  foreign  students  numbered  98,  the  largest  number 

in  the  history  of  the  school.    This  foreign 

Foreign       prroup  has  not  yet  become  a  serious  prob- 
Element.      &       i"  -^  ^ 

lem  at  Cologne,  for  at  most  it  represents 
only  about  a  fifth  part  of  the  whole.  Of  the  other  two 
large  commercial  colleges,  Berlin  has  about  thirty  per 
cent,  of  her  students  foreigners,  while  at  Leipzig  more 
than  half  have  come  from  outside  the  German  Empire — 
in  the  winter  semester  of  1910-1911,  260  out  of  a  total  of 
506,  about  half  of  whom  are  Russians.    This  influx  of 


COLLEGES  OF   COMMEECE  207 

PREPARATION  OF  STUDENTS— COLOGNE 


1901 

Winter  Semester 

1905- 
'06 

1909- 
'10 

1910- 
'11 

1911- 
'12 

I     Graduates    of     "higher 
schools" 

24 

98 

144 

157 

? 

a  Gymnasien 

b  Realgymnasien . . . 
c  Oberrealschulen . . 
d  Higher    commer- 
cial schools .  .  , 

20 

1 
2 

1 

53 

12 

9 

24 

60 
21 
10 

53 

61 
26 
16 

54 

II    One-year  volunteers  with 
commercial  training . . 

III  Seminary  trained  teach- 

ers   

IV  From  other  callings .... 
V    Women 

43 

? 
1 

190 

11 
5 

243 

33 
25 
15 

256 

24 
21 
12 

? 

? 
? 

14 

68 

304 

460 

470 

456 

foreigners  has  grown  to  rather  alarming  proportions,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are  charged  double  the  regu- 
lar fees,  while  in  Leipzig  the  matriculation  charge  for 
foreigners  is  100  marks,  in  contrast  to  only  20  marks 
that  the  native  Germans  have  to  pay. 

Regularly  matriculated  students  naturally  form  the 
center  about  which  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of  the 
school    revolves.     There   are   also   special 
students,  those   enrolled    as    regular    and 


Classes  of 
Students. 


special  students   in  administration,  mem- 
bers of  the  English  and  the  French  seminar,  and  auditors. 
The  auditors,  who  help  materially   in   swelling  the 


208  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

total  registration  of  the  school,  are  residents  of  Cologne, 

who  frequent  the  numerous  evening  public  lectures,  a 

kind  of  extension  course,  as  it  were,  but 
Auditors.         .  ,  ,.        ,  ,   ,        ,    ^  ,  . 

without  credit.    Any  adult,  whatever  his  or 

her  previous  training,  may   secure   for  ten  marks  per 

semester  an  auditor's  card  that  will  admit  to  all  public 

lectures. 

The  membership  of  the  English  and  French  seminars 

is  very  largely  made  up  of  modern  language  teachers 

in  the  public  schools,  who  wish  to  perfect 

eminar      themselves  further  in  the  language  of  their 
Students.  ° 

choice.  This  is  quite  apart  from  the  com- 
mercial work  of  the  school,  and  merely  represents  the 
desire  of  the  heads  of  these  departments  to  make  them- 
selves additionally  useful  in  the  community.  The  Eng- 
lish seminar  that  I  visited  in  the  spring  of  1912  was  a 
particularly  able  group  of  mature  men  and  women,  meet- 
ing once  a  week  in  the  library  of  the  English  department. 
Shaw's  "Man  and  Superman"  happened  to  be  the  subject 
for  reading  and  discussion  on  that  occasion. 

As  is  probably  well  known,  training  for  the  civil  ser- 
vice is  considerably  more  important  and  far-reaching  in 

„     ,        .      Germany  than  in  the  United  States.    The 
Students  in  -^ 

Administra-    German  civil  servant  occupies  a  very  im- 
°°'         portant  and  honorable  position.  The  mayor- 
alty, for  instance,  is  a  calling  where  professional  training 
is  required,  and  is  not  a  political  plum  to  be  gathered  by 


COLLEGES   OP    COMMERCE  209 

the  party  leader  or  his  nominee.  It  is  as  much  a  business 
as  being  president  of  a  bank,  and  the  successful  man 
in  a  small  city  is  likely  to  be  called  to  preside  over  a 
larger  city.  The  Cologne  College  of  Commerce,  in  its 
course  in  administration  (Verwaltungskurse),  offers 
training  for  mayors  and  other  municipal  administrative 
officers,  secretaries  of  chambers  of  commerce,  and  the 
like.  No  specific  subjects  are  prescribed,  nor  is  any 
special  diploma  given.  The  regular  participants  are 
university  students  who  have  already  specialized  in 
jurisprudence  and  political  economy.  Young  employees 
in  the  customs,  postal,  or  telegraph  services,  who  have 
completed  at  least  seven  years  of  a  nine-year  secondary 
course,  are  admitted  to  this  work  as  special  students. 

The  foregoing  explanations  will  doubtless  make  clear 
the  table  on  the  following  page  which  shows  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  various  classes  of  students,  as 

.  Enrollment, 

well  as  the  growth  m  enrollment  smce  the 

foundation. 

Life  at  the  Cologne  College  of  Commerce  is  largely  a 
replica  of  that  to  be  encountered  at  the  German  uni- 
versities in  general.     One  finds  the  omni- 

.       .  Student  Life, 

present  student  organization,  whose  mem- 
bers "wear  the  colors,"  and  will  fight  at  the  slightest 
provocation,  fancied  or  real.  Cologne  has  only  four  of 
these  societies,  for  the  authorities  have  thus  far  ob- 
jected to  the  establishment  of  more.  Five  others,  non- 
color  organizations,  gratify  the  more  peacefully  minded 


210  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

COLOGNE  COLLEGE  OF  COMMERCE— ENROLLMENT  ^ 


1901 

Winter  Semester 

1905- 

1909- 

1910- 

1911- 

'06 

'10 

'11 

'12 

Regularly    matriculated    stu- 

dents   

304 

460 

470 

456 

Special  students 

46 

61 

68 

79 

Participants — Administrative 

course 

30 

22 

18 

4 

Special    students  —  Adminis- 

trative course 

6 

18 

23 

21 

English  seminar 

46 

49 

50 

49 

French  seminar 

66 

64 

57 

67 

Auditors 

1278 

1658 

1616 

1495 

Totals 

763 

1776 

2332 

2302 

2203  2 

^  Bericht  iiber  die  Entwicklung  im  ersten  Jahrzehnt,  1911,  p.  61. 
2  Includes  also  32  students  who  passed  their  diploma  examination 
in  the  faU  of  1911. 

youth's  desire  for  secret  society  membership.  There 
are,  besides,  a  society  for  women,  and  an  organization 
for  non-society  members,  making  eleven  all  told.  In 
addition  there  are  a  gymnastic  club,  a  tennis  club,  one 
or  two  boating  clubs,  and  a  football  club,  for  interest  in 
sports  is  growing  rapidly  in  Germany. 

Most  of  the  wealthy  youth  who  go  to  an  institution 
of  university  grade  primarily  for  amusement  seek  some 
other  place  than  Cologne.  Youths  of  this  class  usually 
get  into  the  "color  wearing"  societies,  where  their  time  is 
fully  occupied  in  walks,  Kneipen,  duels,  and  the  like. 
The  result  is  that  for  two  years  they  have  little  time 


COLLEGES  OF   COMMERCE  211 

for  anything  more  serious.  After  that  the  older  mem- 
bers of  the  societies  take  a  hand  in  the  proceedings  and 
force  the  young  fellows  to  settle  down  to  serious  work. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  for  them,  if  they  are  ever  to 
come  up  for  the  diploma,  the  minimum  four  semesters 
must  always  be  lengthened. 

For  the  student  who  comes  for  work,  and  most  of 
those  at  Cologne  are  there  for  that  purpose,  there  is 

plenty  to  do.     The   building  is  open  all 
11  r  ^T       1  •,     Working  Day. 

day    long    from    Monday    mornmg    until 

Saturday  night.  Lectures  begin  on  some  days  as  early 
as  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  some  classes  do  not 
close  until  ten  at  night.  The  ordinary  working  day, 
however,  runs  from  eight  in  the  morning  until  nine  at 
night,  interrupted  by  only  a  single  hour  at  noon. 

Although  one  finds  a  great  multiplicity  of  courses  (in 
the  winter  semester  of    1910-1911    no    fewer   than    170 
with  296  week  hours),  they  may   all  be 
grouped  under  the  following  large  topics:     tj!"!^^^!. 
(1)    political    economy;     (2)    commercial 
technique;  (3)  law;  (4)  insurance  and  corporations;  (5) 
geography  and  commodities  of  commerce;  (6)  science  and 
technology;  (7)  foreign  languages;  (8)  training  for  com- 
mercial teachers;  (9)  general  culture  courses;  and  (10) 
stenography.     All,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the 
public  lecture  courses  under  (9)  above,  are  subordinate 
to  the  underlying  commercial  purpose  of  the  school. 


212  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY 

There  is  a  regular  diploma  course,  based  upon  a  mini- 
mum attendance  of  four  semesters,  and  the  passage  of 
an  examination   at  the  end.     Under  this 
p  oma      scheme  the  required  work  includes  politi- 
cal economy;  law;  commercial  technique;  a 
choice  among  insurance  and  corporations,  geography  and 
commodities  of  commerce,  mechanics  and  experimental 
physics,  and  chemistry;  and  either  English  or  French. 
The  first  three  named  constitute  the  backbone  of  the 
work.     It  is  possible  for  one  to  begin  either  English 
or  French  at  the  school  and  to  complete  the  course  in 
seventeen  hours  of  work. 

The  required   subjects  under  political   economy   are 

as  follows:  introduction  to  political  economy,  exchange; 

commercial  and  colonial  history;  commer- 

of  Courses     ^^^^  policy;   colonial  policy;   social   ques- 

I.  Political      tions  and  social  policy ;  money,  banking, 

Economy. 

and  stock  exchange;  agrarian  and  indus- 
trial policy;  finance;  and  statistics.  In  the  winter  sem- 
ester of  1910-1911  there  were  twenty-four  courses  of- 
fered in  this  department,  with  thirty-seven  week  hours 
of  work. 

Law  instruction  has  the  double  purpose  of  orientating 

the  student  with  reference  to  the  general  principles  of 

jurisprudence  in  their  public  relationships, 

2.  Law. 

and  particularly  in  their  application  to  the 
business  world;  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  acquaint 


COLLEGES   OF   COMMERCE  213 

him  with  the  legal  regulations  that  affect  his  every- 
day life.  The  required  courses  include  the  following: 
introduction  to  the  study  of  law;  civil  law;  commercial 
law;  banking  law;  civil  suits;  maritime  and  inland 
shipping  law;  bankruptcy  law;  industrial  and  liability 
law.  Courses  are  also  offered  in  international  law,  and 
in  German  national  and  administrative  law.  In  the 
winter  semester  of  1910-1911  there  were  twenty-three 
courses  offered  in  this  department,  with  forty  week 
hours  of  work. 

Beginning  with  the  winter  semester  of  1911-1912,  the 
work  in  commercial  technique  was  modified,  with  the 
purpose  of  lightening  the  strain  upon  the  3.  commercial 
individual  student  and,  at  the  same  time.  Technique, 
of  improving  the  quality.  To  this  end  all  are  now  re- 
quired to  take  a  general  course,  which  covers  general 
commercial  management  and  bookkeeping,  general  tech- 
nique of  trade,  and  practical  exercises.  This  course 
must  include,  in  addition,  a  commercial  technique 
course  in  factory  management,  commercial  enterprises, 
or  banking.  "General  technique  of  trade,"  as  used  here, 
embraces  all  the  various  branches  of  commercial  enter- 
prises that  have  to  do  with  the  purchase,  payment 
for,  and  shipment  of  goods,  foreign  as  well  as  do- 
mestic. 

Among  the  optional  subjects  the  following  are  the  re- 
quired courses,   assuming  that    the  subject  is  elected: 


214  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

(a)  Insurance  and  corporations:  introduction  to 
the  principles  of  insurance;   legal   basis  of   insurance; 

economic   and  technical  basis  of  the  im- 
%ubj>cts       portant   branches   of   insurance;   working- 
men's    insurance. 

(b)  Geography  and  commodities  of  commerce:  gen- 
eral economic  and  commercial  geography;  special  eco- 
nomic and  commercial  geography  of  the  continents,  and 
of  the  most  important  countries  from  a  political  and 
economic  standpoint;  general  descriptive  geography 
(oceanography,  climatology,  etc.),  with  special  refer- 
ence to  its  economic  relations.  "Commodities  of  com- 
merce" cover  in  the  course  of  the  year  the  vegetable, 
animal,  and  mineral  products. 

(c)  Natural  science  and  technology:  general  mechan- 
ical and  experimental  physics  as  a  basis,  together  with 
one  of  the  following:  electrical  engineering;  textile  in- 
dustry; or,  iron  industry,  mining,  and  mechanics. 

(d)  Chemistry  includes  a  thorough-going  course,  ex- 
tending over  the  entire  two  years,  in  organic  as  well  as 
inorganic  chemistry,  with  laboratory  practice. 

The  resources  of  the  school  in  the  way  of  modern 
language   instruction  are   particularly   noteworthy,    for 
5.  Foreign      courses  are  offered    in    seventeen    foreign 
Languages,      modem  tougues,  to  wit:     English,  French, 
Italian,    Spanish,    Portuguese,    Russian,    Dutch,    Nor- 
wegian,   Danish,    Japanese,    Chinese,    Arabic,    modem 


COLLEGES   OF   COMMERCE  215 

Persian,  modern  Greek,  Hindustani,  Turkish,  and  Es- 
peranto. All  except  Norwegian,  Danish,  Japanese,  Chi- 
nese, and  Esperanto  actually  appeared  on  the  time- 
table for  the  summer  semester  of  1912.  Furthermore, 
conversation  courses  in  German  are  offered  for  foreign 
students.  In  other  words,  it  is  possible  for  the  pros- 
pective merchant  or  business  representative  to  find  here 
an  introduction  at  least  to  the  language  of  any  people 
with  whom  he  is  normally  likely  to  have  any  commer- 
cial relations.  The  school  thus  attempts  to  supply  any 
legitimate  linguistic  demand  that  may  arise,  in  order, 
as  the  director  says,  "to  preserve,  through  his  knowl- 
edge of  foreign  tongues,  the  superiority  of  the  German 
merchant  in  the  keen  international  world-struggle." 

The  diploma  examination  at  the  end  of  the  course  is 
partly  written  and  partly  oral.     As  a  matter  of  fact, 

not  ten  per  cent,  of  the  regular  students 

Diploma, 
even  enroll  as  candidates  for  the  diploma, 

to  say  nothing  of  actually  coming  up  for  the  trial. 
While  such  a  situation  would  cause  considerable  sur- 
prise and  probably  unfavorable  comment  in  America, 
the  conditions  in  Germany  are  quite  different.  In  the 
first  place,  no  particular  privilege  attaches  to  the  pos- 
session of  the  diploma  from  the  college  of  commerce, 
and,  in  a  country  like  Germany,  where  privilege  fig- 
ures large  in  the  mind  of  the  student  body,  this  is  a 
serious  handicap.    Chance  of  preferment  in  business  is 


216  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

dependent  upon  what  the  individual  can  do,  rather  than 
upon  what  distinction  he  possesses.  Again,  it  is  very 
common  for  the  German  university  student  not  to  take 
his  degree.  He  stays  at  the  university  for  six  semesters, 
comes  up  for  his  state  examination  in  one  of  several 
fields,  and  often  foregoes  the  relatively  expensive  lux- 
'  ury  of  a  university  degree.  The  great  desideratum  is 
the  possession  of  the  one-year  volunteer  privilege,  which 
alone  makes  university  and  college  of  commerce  pos- 
sible. There  is  thus  sufficient  precedent  for  this  attitude 
among  students  of  other  institutions  of  similar  rank. 
Nearly  all  who  actually  come  up  for  the  examination 
at  Cologne — probably  upwards  of  eighty  per  cent. — pass 
it.  The  authorities  follow  the  ordinary  university  cus- 
tom, and  advise  those  students  who  are  not  reasonably 
sure  of  getting  through  not  to  submit  to  the  ordeal. 

Preparation  of   teachers  of  commercial   schools  has 
always  been  an  important  function  of  the  college.    No 
specific  courses  are  required,  but  work  is  of- 
Course        fered  each  semester  in  pedagogy  (history  of 
education,  psychology,  or  general  method) , 
special  method  in  various  subjects,  and  a  seminar  con- 
ducted by  the  director  of  the  commercial  i^eaZ-school 
in  Cologne.     Observation  and  practice  teaching  in  this 
city  school  are  an  important  factor  in  the  training.    A 
minimum  of  five  semesters  is  necessary  in  order  to  sat- 
isfy the  requirements  for  the  teacher's  diploma,  a  part 


COLLEGES    OF   COMMERCE  217 

of  the  examination  for  which  includes  successful  teach- 
ing of  a  lesson  to  the  pupils  of  the  commercial  school 
upon  a  topic  assigned  twenty-four  hours  in  advance. 
This  topic  must  lie  in  the  fields  of  political  economy, 
business  technique,  law,  or  commercial  geography,  as 
the  candidate  may  elect. 

Trips  to  typical  manufactories  and  commercial 
houses,  not  only  in  Cologne  but  also  in  the  surround- 
ing country,  constitute  a  very  important 

aspect  of  the  work  of  the  Cologne  school.    ^*"<lent 

Excursions. 
The  annual  report  for  the  year  1910  con- 
tains a  list  of  nearly  ninety  such  excursions  that  were 
made  during  the  first  ten  years  of  the  school's  existence. 
The  month  or  six  weeks'  vacation  between  the  two  sem- 
esters in  the  spring  is  utilized  for  more  extended  travel. 
The  first  of  these  longer  jaunts,  in  1905,  embraced 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Kiel,  and  afforded  the  students 
an  opportunity  to  gain  some  first  hand  information  of  the 
great  seaport  towns  of  Germany  and  the  foreign  com- 
merce issuing  through  their  gates.  In  1906  they  took  a 
four  weeks'  trip  among  the  most  important  seaports  of 
western  Europe.  Commercial  towns  in  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Turkey,  and  the  German  railway  in  Asia  Minor 
were  visited  in  1907.  Equatorial  East  Africa,  particu- 
larly the  German  colonies,  formed  the  objective  point 
in  1908.  Two  years  later  saw  twenty-eight  of  the  stu- 
dents off  on  the  most  ambitious  undertaking  of  all — a 


218  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

trip  to  the  United  States  and  Canada,  in  which  tliey 
traversed  twenty-six  of  the  American  states,  going  as 
far  west  as  Seattle  and  San  Francisco,  and  covering 
nearly  nine  thousand  miles  before  they  returned  home. 
The  yearbook  for  1910  contains  a  most  interesting  ac- 
count of  their  voyage.  Surely  these  young  men  are  in 
a  fair  way  to  test  the  truth  of  Goethe's  assertion:  "A 
clever  man  finds  the  best  education  in  travel." 


CHAPTER  VII 

CONCLUSION 

"What  is  the  application  to  home  conditions?"  is  al- 
ways a  mooted  question  after  every  study  of  a  foreign 
situation,  educational  or  otherwise.     Me- 
chanical processes  are  readily  transferable,      ^^^io^^^ 

Differences, 
even  from  one  end  of  the  earth  to  another, 

but  social  conditions,  affairs  of  the  spirit,  can  seldom 
be  transported  across  even  so  narrow  and  intangible  a 
line  as  an  international  boundary.  It  is  not  a  question 
of  what  German  schools  could  be  brought  bodily  to 
America,  for,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  the 
fundamental  social  and  political  ideals  of  the  two  peo- 
ples are  radically  different,  but  rather  what  ideas  can 
we  get  from  Germany  that  may  be  of  service  in  the  solu- 
tion of  our  own  educational  problems? 

Probably  the  most  noteworthy  characteristic  of  these 
German  commercial  schools  is  the  extent  to  which,  pri- 
vate  and   semi-public   activity   figures   in 

their  foundation  and  support.     From  the   Cooperation  of 

Interests, 
continuation  courses  at  the  bottom,  to  the 

colleges  of  commerce  at  the  top,  non-government  initia- 

219 


220  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

live  is  in  evidence  all  along  the  line.  The  part  played  by- 
merchants'  associations  and  chambers  of  commerce  has 
been  presented  in  some  detail  in  the  cases  of  Leipzig  and 
Frankfort.  These  are  not  isolated  instances,  by  any 
means,  but  are  merely  typical  of  what  might  be  found 
in  many  other  cities  in  the  country,  although,  perhaps, 
not  always  in  so  striking  a  degree.  It  is  not  at  all  un- 
usual to  find  financial  support  of  a  single  school  derived 
from  fees,  city  and  national  grants,  endowment  in- 
come, and  appropriations  from  commercial  organiza- 
tions of  various  kinds.  Combination  and  cooperation 
of  interests  seem  to  be  the  watchwords  in  Germany. 
Another  evidence  of  this  same  tendency  toward  cooper- 
ation is  to  be  found  in  the  readiness  of  the  imperial 
authorities  to  stand  behind  commercial  and  industrial 
enterprises,  not  only  with  the  moral  support  of  the  gov- 
ernment, but  also  with  the  national  resources  so  far  as 
they  are  available. 

Educational  authorities  are  reluctant  to  try  experi- 
ments at  the  expense  of  public  funds,  but  once  private 
means  have  initiated  a  reform  and  proved  its  value, 
the  government  is  always  willing  to  draw  upon  the  na- 
tional treasury  to  further  this  reform.  Such  disinclina- 
tion to  undertake  innovations  is  thoroughly  characteris- 
tic of  centralized  governments.  We  find  a  significant 
example  in  this  country  in  a  comparison  of  the  two  state 
systems  in  New  York  and  Massachusetts.    The  former 


CONCLUSION  221 

has  the  most  centrally  controlled  educational  system  in 
the  land,  while  in  the  latter  local  independence  has 
dominated  for  nearly  three  hundred  years.  Students  of 
our  own  educational  history  are  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  relative  positions  of  these  two  commonwealths 
in  initiating  reforms  in  our  American  educational  prog- 
ress. Germany,  with  its  centralized  educational  con- 
trol, avoids  stagnation  by  the  encouragement  given  to 
the  development  of  such  individual  initiative. 

Of  the  six  colleges  of  commerce  in  Germany,  Mann- 
heim, and  perhaps  Frankfort,  are  the  only  institutions 
that  owe  their  foundation  to  municipal  initiative,  and 
they  have  since  been  generously  endowed  through  pri- 
vate benefactions  to  the  amount  of  upward  of  a  million 
marks  apiece.  The  Leipzig  school  is  indebted  for  its 
foundation  to  the  chamber  of  commerce,  the  Munich 
school  to  the  commercial  association,  while  the  Berlin 
school  was  not  only  founded  through  the  public  spirit 
of  the  Berlin  Merchants'  Corporation,  but  it  is  still 
maintained  solely  by  their  efforts. 

Not  only  is  popular  interest  fostered,  but  the  con- 
tinued efficiency  of  these  commercial  schools  of  all 
grades  is  conserved  by  recognition  on  the  boards  of 
government  of  the  various  commercial  organizations. 
The  appointment  of  the  president  of  the  chamber  of 
commerce  or  some  accredited  representative  from  that 
organization,   for  instance,  assures  the  support  of  the 


222  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

whole  membership  of  that  body.  The  presence  of  these 
leaders  of  commercial  activity  not  only  insures  moral 
support,  but  guarantees  expert  advice  of  a  most  prac- 
tical nature  when  changes  in  programs  of  studies  are 
imminent.  In  a  continuation  school  class  for  embryo 
barbers,  which  I  visited  in  Mannheim,  three  strangers 
entered  and  followed  the  work  with  great  interest.  It 
appeared  subsequently  that  they  were  master  barbers 
of  the  town,  who  had  come  as  representatives  of  the 
barbers'  association,  in  order  to  check  up  the  work  of 
the  school,  a  custom  that  is  repeated  toward  the  close 
of  each  school  year.  Thus  do  the  school  authorities 
leave  no  stone  unturned  to  secure  and  retain  the  back- 
ing of  the  professional  practitioners. 

This   cooperation  of  interests   leads   directly   to  an- 
other point — variety  of  curriculum,  for,  if  local  support 
is  to  be  maintained,  local  interests  must 

ar  ety  o      '^^  conserved.     If  one  were  to  consider  the 
Cumculum. 

whole  vocational  school  situation  in  Ger- 
many, this  feature  would  be  more  apparent.  But,  even 
in  such  a  relatively  small  portion  of  the  total  voca- 
tional area  as  training  for  commerce,  the  point  is  suffi- 
ciently obvious.  A  comparison  of  the  programs  of  the 
commercial  schools  at  Frankfort  and  Leipzig^  will 
readily  show  certain  differences,  which  would  stand  out 
still  more  prominently  if  one  were  to  study  the  exact 

» See  pp.  162,  177. 


CONCLUSION  223 

content  of  the  courses.  Similar  differences  would  like- 
wise appear  in  the  programs  of  two  commercial  schools 
in  either  one  of  the  two  cities.  In  other  words,  not  only- 
are  there  differences  among  programs  of  study  in  com- 
mercial schools  in  different  towns,  but  also  there  is  no 
rigid  uniformity  imposed  upon  all  the  schools  in  the 
same  town.  Inspection  of  typical  industries,  at  home 
and  abroad,  which  plays  such  a  dominant  role  in  the 
courses  at  the  Cologne  College  of  Commerce,  the 
commercial  higher  school  at  Elberfeld,  and  the  Leipzig 
Commercial  Institute,  and  whose  counterpart  in  the 
lower  schools  appears  in  utilizing  the  collections  of  the 
school  museum  that  represent  the  production  of  local 
industries  supplemented  by  visits  to  the  industries  them- 
selves, are  only  another  phase  of  this  variety  of  cur- 
riculum. One  of  the  more  serious  obstacles  to  the 
greater  usefulness  of  American  schools  to-day  is  found 
in  this  very  uniformity  of  curriculum,  which  allows  too 
little  variation  among  different  schools  of  the  same  com- 
munity. 

"Economy"  is  a  word  that  is  foreign  to  the  vocabu- 
lary of  the  ordinary  American  citizen.  When  it  is  pos- 
sible for  a  young  man  to  get  along  at  one 

of  our  oldest  universities  on  a  cash  outlay     ^<^^°°' 

Economy. 

for  the  year  of  two  hundred  dollars,  one  is 

inclined  to  ridicule  the  assertion,  but,  when  one  recalls 

that  that  amount  is  about  two-thirds  as  much  as  the 


224  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

elementary  teacher's  initial  salary  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, the  proposition  is  not  so  startling.  The  spirit  of 
lavishness  pervades  certain  aspects  of  the  conduct  of 
American  schools.  The  ordinary  school  week  with  us 
consists  of  five  days  of  five  hours  each,  twenty-five 
hours  in  all.  The  German  school  week  is  usually  thir- 
ty-four hours  long,  an  advantage  of  more  than  one- 
third.  The  maximum  school  year  in  any  American 
state  is  about  190  days,  which,  when  allowance  is  made 
for  absences,  shrinks  to  little  more  than  150  days  net 
per  pupil,  the  longest  actual  year  of  school  attendance 
in  the  country.  The  corresponding  figures  in  Germany 
both  run  well  over  200  days,  a  further  advantage  of  more 
than  one-third.  It  is  a  notorious  fact  that  compulsory 
school  attendance  laws  are  not  enforced  in  this  coun- 
try, while  in  Germany  they  are,  and  the  children  are 
held  throughout  the  whole  period,  or  until  they  reach 
fourteen  years  of  age.  So  strictly  do  some  towns  en- 
force the  compulsory  attendance  laws  that  in  Neu  Koln, 
a  suburb  of  Berlin,  children  living  on  barges  and  canal 
boats  that  tie  up  at  the  wharves  in  unloading  and  load- 
ing for  as  long  as  three  weeks  are  sought  out  by  the 
police  and  compelled  to  attend  school.  Children  of  mu- 
sic hall  and  vaudeville  performers,  and  others  whose 
callings  force  them  to  lead  a  peripatetic  life,  are  like- 
wise reached  in  the  same  way.    Besides,  many  German 


CONCLUSION  225 

communities  hold  their  children  in  continuation  schools 
several  hours  per  week  for  three  years  longer. 

In  Europe,  education  is  usually  looked  upon  as  an 
affair  of  "the  state."  With  our  less  centralized  form 
of  national  government,  we  look  upon  education  as  "an 
affair  of  the  states."  At  least  all  our  educational  legis- 
lation, even  in  a  commonwealth  like  Massachusetts, 
where  the  community  has  enjoyed  so  much  freedom 
of  initiative,  springs  from  this  source.  We  have  laws 
upon  our  statute  books  making  school  attendance  com- 
pulsory from  six  or  eight  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  but 
the  looseness  with  which  these  laws  are  enforced  is  no- 
toriously lamentable.  Even  in  the  case  of  children  ac- 
tually on  the  rolls  of  the  schools,  too  many  excuses  for 
absence  are  readily  accepted.  Few  parents  would  cast 
their  ballots  to  put  on  the  statute  books  a  law  like  this: 
"Children  may  be  kept  from  school  whenever  their 
parents  or  guardians  choose";  but  the  number  of  absen- 
ces, tardinesses,  and  dismissals,  due  to  music  lessons, 
shopping  trips,  extension  of  the  ordinary  holidays,  and 
carelessness  on  the  part  of  elders  or  children,  would  mount 
up  into  the  thousands  in  any  city  school  system.  Yet 
every  such  single  occurrence  is  a  waste  of  public 
funds  and  a  retardation  in  the  class  progress.  Illnesses 
and  death  must  inevitably  be  reckoned  with  in  the 
administration  of  a  school  system,  as  well  as  in  other 
walks  of  life.    These  are  charged  to  what  may  be  called 


226  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

necessary  waste,  but  absences  motivated  by  other  causes 
can  rarely  be  classed  in  this  category.  It  is  probably 
no  exaggeration  to  state  that,  if  every  unnecessary  ab- 
sence from  school  during  school  hours  were  eliminated, 
there  is  scarcely  a  school  in  the  country  whose  efficiency 
would  not  be  increased  anywhere  from  five  to  fifty  per 
cent. 

Germany  has  largely  succeeded  in  eliminating  this 
unnecessary  waste  by  putting  stringent  laws  on  the 
statute  books,  and  then  by  enforcing  those  laws.  We 
learn  of  the  young  Silesian  who  went  from  Breslau 
to  Berlin  to  work  in  a  hotel  when  within  less  than  four 
months  of  the  expiration  of  his  apprenticeship  period. 
Three  days  later  he  was  summoned  to  police  headquar- 
ters, and  ordered  to  enroll  in  some  continuation  school 
for  the  three  months  that  remained  until  he  reached 
the  leaving  age,  on  pain  of  being  expelled  from  Berlin. 
In  America  there  is  hardly  one  chance  in  a  thousand 
of  the  competent  officials  discovering  a  boy  who  moved 
from  another  town  within  four  months  of  the  expira- 
tion of  his  compulsory  school  attendance  period,  and 
the  chances  are  even  greater  that,  if  it  were  known,  the 
authorities  would  close  their  eyes  to  the  circumstance, 
on  the  ground  that  such  a  brief  space  of  time  was  not 
worth  bothering  about.  When,  to  a  longer  school  year 
and  an  appropriate  school  attendance  law  properly  en- 
forced, one  adds  the  trained  and  expert  teachers  in  Ger- 


CONCLUSION  227 

many,  is  it  any  wonder  that  the  German  schools  succeed 
better  in  preparing  pupils  to  fit  into  the  German  social 
and  economic  life  than  the  American  schools  do  in 
training  pupils  to  fit  into  the  American  fife?  It  is  not 
a  question  of  which  are  the  better  schools,  for  the  stan- 
dards of  judgment  in  the  two  cases  are  different,  but 
which  are  coming  the  nearer  to  solving  the  particular 
problems  set  before  them? 

The  query  as  to  the  advisability  of  some  form  of 
continuation  school  in  this  country  is  still  a  problem 
to  be  debated.     It  is  well  worth  serious 
consideration,  however,  for  Germany  has     °^  ?^^.  °° 
succeeded  through  a  system  of  continua- 
tion schools  in  reaching  her  adolescent  youth,  and  giving 
them  a  training  and  an  equipment  that  are  bound  to  be 
significant  factors  in  the  great  world  struggle  for  com- 
mercial  supremacy,   aside   entirely   from  the   influence 
upon  the  individual's  civic  and  personal  development. 

We  in  this  country  have  begun  to  realize  the  need  for 
vocational  training,  but  as  yet  we  have  found  no  satis- 
factory solution  of  the  problem.  Some  communities  are 
offering  work  of  a  vocational  character  in  the  upper 
grades  of  the  elementary  school,  but  more  often  the 
youth  is  compelled  to  get  his  training  empirically  in 
the  school  of  business.  This  manifest  injustice  toward 
the  less  fortunate  individual  who  cannot  continue  be- 
yond the  elementary  school  is  fundamentally  at  vari- 


228  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

ance  with  the  basic  assumptions  of  democratic  society. 
The  state  owes  him  as  much  opportunity  for  becoming 
an  efficient  worker  in  the  social  whole  as  it  owes  to  the 
more  fortunate,  but  mayhap  less  competent  individual, 
who  continues  through  the  secondary  school,  the  col- 
lege, and  even  the  university,  all  of  which  are  supported 
out  of  the  public  treasury.  Germany  has  refused  to 
reduce  the  minimum  of  intellectual  training  provided 
in  the  elementary  school  by  the  intrusion  of  work  of  a 
vocational  character.  This  is  relegated  to  the  con- 
tinuation school,  and  wisely  so.  Then  the  youth  re- 
ceives it  when  he  is  more  mature  and  so  better  able  to 
assimilate  it;  but,  more  important  still,  the  vocational 
work  of  the  school  parallels  the  vocational  work  of  the 
real  world,  and  becomes  thereby  more  vital.  Each  one 
supplements  the  other. 

It  is  well  worth  profiting  by  Germany's  experience  in 
this  connection.  If  continuation  schools  are  introduced 
at  all,  and  there  seems  good  reason  for  so  doing,  they 
should  in  the  first  place  be  made  compulsory,  and,  in 
the  second  place,  be  established  during  the  working  day, 
or  at  least  between  seven  in  the  morning  and  six  at 
night.  For  the  better  part  of  fifty  years  the  movement 
toward  the  compulsory  continuation  school  in  Germany 
has  been  growing  steadily.  Some  of  the  South  German 
states  have  had  this  compulsory  provision  for  nearly 
that  length   of  time.     Since  July,    1900,  the  Imperial 


CONCLUSION  229 

Trade  Regulations  have  empowered  communities  to 
establish  continuation  schools  and  to  make  attendance 
therein  obligatory  if  they  choose.  In  the  latest  codifica- 
tion of  these  laws,  under  date  of  December  27,  1911, 
this  has  been  extended  so  as  to  include  both  boys  and 
girls  engaged  in  industrial  or  commercial  enterprises 
who  are  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen. 
Furthermore,  the  Prussian  state  authority  is  empowered 
to  force  communities  of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants 
to  establish  such  compulsory  attendance  schools.  For 
the  past  six  or  seven  years  bills  of  similar  import  have 
been  before  the  French  Chambers,  and  have  gone 
through  the  committee  stage,  only  to  be  crowded  out  in 
the  closing  days  of  the  session  by  the  pressure  of  more 
important  legislation. 

One  would  hardly  be  justified  in  asking  for  laws  in 
all  our  several  states  imposing  universal  compulsory  at- 
tendance at  continuation  schools,  but  certainly  the  time 
would  seem  ripe  for  trying  it  on  a  small  scale  in  some 
of  the  characteristically  industrial  or  commercial  states; 
for  trying,  for  instance,  permissive  legislation  in  cities 
of  25,000  inhabitants,  authorizing  them  to  require  at- 
tendance of  all  boys  and  girls  under  seventeen  years  of 
age  who  are  engaged  in  industrial  or  commercial  work. 
Although  the  American  workman  is  said  to  produce  in 
a  given  time  merchandise  to  the  value  of  9,440  francs, 
as  opposed  to  3,950  francs  for  the  English  workman,  and 


230  COMMKHCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

2,050  francs  for  the  French  and  the  German  workman 
in  the  same  time/  the  higher  standard  of  living  in 
America  demands  a  higher  wage,  and  this  manifest 
superiority  in  earning  power  can  only  be  maintained 
by  raising  the  standard  qualifications  of  the  workman, 
a  situation  that  increased  training  of  the  right  sort  must 
inevitably  bring  about.  The  continuation  school  of- 
fers such  an  opportunity. 

Experience  abroad  has  demonstrated  the  futility  of 
giving  this  instruction  during  the  evening  hours,  when 
the  adolescent  is  wearied  with  the  day's  labor.  Espe- 
cially is  this  true  where  there  is  no  compulsory  attend- 
ance regulation.  In  this  latter  case,  however  enthusiastic 
the  pupils  may  be  at  the  outset,  their  numbers  soon  be- 
gin to  drop  away.  France  has  experimented  with  this 
type  of  evening  course,  and  barely  one-third  of  the  en- 
rollment persisted  until  the  end  of  the  year.  One  must 
recognize  the  difference  between  evening  classes  for 
adolescents  and  evening  classes  for  adults,  whether  to 
enable  the  latter  to  learn  the  language  of  their  adopted 
country,  or  to  provide  those  already  struggling  in  life's 
current  with  an  opportunity  of  rendering  themselves 
stronger  and  better  equipped  for  the  ordeal.  With  the 
adult  the  motive  is  always  present,  spurring  him  on  to 

^  AsTiER  ET  CuMiNAL,  L' enseigncment  technique,  industriel  et 
commercial,  en  France  et  a  I'etranger,  p.  142,  quoting  Paul  Adam. 


coNCLtrsioN  231 

constancy,  in  the  face  of  distracting  temptations.  With 
youth  this  pressure  is  less  real,  less  effective.  The  lat- 
ter is  not  yet  ready  to  appreciate  the  seriousness  of  the 
situation  he  is  facing,  and  the  necessity  of  perfecting 
himself  as  much  as  possible  to  meet  it.  Here  the  com- 
pulsory attendance  provision  steps  in  to  provide  the 
stimulus  that  would  otherwise  be  wanting.  Even  were 
there  a  compulsory  attendance  regulation,  the  same  ten- 
dencies would  be  working.  Aside  entirely  from  not 
trenching  upon  the  normal  period  for  rest  and  recreation, 
the  school  hours  taken  from  the  working  day  become  to 
the  youth,  as  they  properly  should,  an  integral  part  of 
his  time  spent  in  learning  the  business. 

The  chief  opposition  to  any  arrangement  whereby 
school  time  should  encroach  on  the  working  day  is  likely 
to  come  from  the  employers  of  labor,  who  would  object 
to  reorganizing  their  schedules  for  this  purpose.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  would  find  compensation  in  the 
greater  skill  and  efiiciency  of  their  workers.  Several 
years  ago  the  Paris  Chamber  of  Commerce  went  on 
record  as  opposing  the  continuation  school  in  principle, 
and  especially  when  its  hours  of  instruction  were  taken 
from  the  working  day.  It  was  open-minded  enough, 
however,  to  send  a  commission  (1910)  to  investigate 
the  working  of  the  system  in  Belgium,  Switzerland, 
Germany,  and  Austro-Hungary.  After  the  report  of 
this  commission,  showing  that  the  day  courses  were  bet- 


232  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

ter  attended  and  gave  better  results  than  those  held 
during  the  evening,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  reversed 
its  former  position,  and  came  out  frankly  in  support  of 
the  obligatory  course  held  during  the  hours  of  the  work- 
ing day.^ 

One  other  extremely  important  point  needs  to  be  kept 
in  mind,  namely:  care  in  formulating  a  proper  program 
of  studies.  European  continuation  courses  would  never 
have  succeeded  but  for  the  cooperation  of  the  business 
man.  In  Germany,  especially,  he  is  always  found  on 
the  boards  of  government  of  the  schools,  and  the  suc- 
cess of  the  school  is  due  in  no  small  measure  to  his  sane 
judgment  and  wise  counsel.  He  knows  what  his  em- 
ployees have  need  of  in  his  shop  or  office,  and  his  ad- 
vice is  freely  sought,  but  he  wisely  leaves  the  profes- 
sional educator  to  determine  the  method  by  which  these 
subjects  should  be  taught.  One  unusually  intelligent 
headmaster  of  a  London  central  school,  in  a  land  where 
individual  initiative  in  school  control  has  the  widest 
scope,  wrote  to  the  representative  manufacturers  and 
merchants  of  his  district,  and  asked:  "What  specific 
things  do  you  want  young  men  who  seek  employment 
in  your  factory  or  office  to  know?"  With  this  informa- 
tion in  hand  he  proceeded  to  reorganize  his  program  of 
studies  so  as  to  perfect  his  boys  in  those  very  points. 

^  Reville,  Enseignement  technique  et  apprentissage,  p.  298. 


CONCLUSION  233 

They  had  all  had  the  training  of  the  lower  school,  but 
this  was  a  special  training  along  particular  lines.  As  a 
result  he  is  constantly  receiving  requests  from  business 
houses,  and  by  the  end  of  the  course  it  is  rare  to  find 
a  single  boy  in  the  top  class  of  the  school  who  has  not 
found  a  place.  In  fact,  the  demand  is  larger  than  the 
supply.  Thus,  the  continuation  school  can  easily  be 
made  to  fit  for  the  real  business  of  life;  though  to 
be  successful,  it  must  be  a  special  school,  and  not  one 
that  merely  continues  for  three  years  more  the  very 
general  training  of  the  present-day  elementary  school. 
From  another  point  of  view,  the  continuation  school 
satisfies  a  social  need.  While  not  interfering  with  the 
youth's  wage-earning  power,  under  parental  guidance 
it  retains  its  hold  upon  him  throughout  the  first  stages 
of  the  adolescent  period  and  up  to  the  very  moment 
when  he  is  ready  to  launch  forth  as  an  independent 
wage-earner.  In  our  American  schools,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  youth  breaks  away  from  close  systematic 
control  and  direction  at  fourteen  years  of  age  (if,  in- 
deed, he  remains  in  school  until  that  period),  at  the 
very  time  when  sound  counsel  should  be  most  helpful 
to  him.  He  is  even  then  putting  on  the  toga  of  man 
physically.  The  community  is  equally  responsible  for 
seeing  that  he  puts  on  the  toga  of  man  intellectually 
and  morally  as  well.    A  wise  cooperation  between  school 


234  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

and  vocation  offers  unparalleled  opportunities  for  dis- 
charging this  responsibility,  and  of  sending  forth  one  who 
is  ready  to  assume  the  burdens  that  society  imposes  upon 
him,  and  who  is  eager  to  become  a  helpful  participant 
in  the  work  of  the  world. 


APPENDIX  A 

apprentice's  indenture  ^ 

The  undersigned  firm,  Rose  Brothers,  of  Frankfurt 
a/M,  and  the  undersigned  Wilhelm  Schiller,  Secretary, 
of  Frankfurt  a/M,  the  latter  in  his  own  name  and  in 
behalf  of  his  son,  Rudolf  Schiller,  has  agreed  upon  and 
concluded  the  following  contract: 

§1 

Obligation  of  the  Employer 

The  firm  Rose  Brothers  take  the  son  of  Wilhelm 
Schiller,  Rudolf  by  name,  born  on  February  12,  19..., 
into  their  wholesale  grocery  business  as  a  commercial 
apprentice,  and  bind  themselves  to  train  him  to  the 
best  of  their  ability  to  become  a  qualified  merchant  in 
their  branch  of  business. 

§2 

Period  of  Apprenticeship 

It  is  agreed  that  the  term  of  the  apprenticeship  shall 

run  consecutively  for  three  years  from  April  1,  19..., 

to  March  31,  19 

1  Quoted,  DoEER  und  Hesse,  Handelskorrespondenz,  pp.  68-70. 

235 


236  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION   IN   GERMANY 

§3 

Maintenance 

The  legal  representative  (father,  mother,  guardian, 
or  trustee)  of  the  apprentice  assumes  all  responsibility 
for  lodging  and  proper  maintenance  during  the  period 
of  the  apprenticeship. 

§4 

School  Fees 

The  school  fees  at  the  commercial  continuation  school 
are  to  be  borne  by  the  employer.  The  expenses  of  the 
necessary  school  supplies  are  to  be  borne  by  the  father. 

§5 

Obligation  of  the  Apprentice 

The  apprentice  must  at  all  times  show  his  employers 
and  their  representatives  the  respect  that  is  their  due. 

He  promises  to  be  honest,  industrious,  obedient,  to 
perform  readily  and  to  the  best  of  his  ability  whatever 
work  or  orders  may  be  required  of  him  by  his  employ- 
ers or  their  representatives,  and  especially  to  put  forth 
zealous  efforts  to  look  out  for  the  interests  of  the  busi- 
ness at  all  times. 

He  is  to  devote  all  his  energies  to  the  business.  He  is 
furthermore  obliged  to  perform  such  accessory  tasks  as 


APPENDIX  237 

are  commonly  associated  with  the  branch  of  the  busi- 
ness in  question.  He  is  to  guard  against  revealing  any 
secrets  of  the  business  or  its  management. 

§6 

Liability  of  the  Legal  Representative 

Wilhelm  Schuler  guarantees  the  faithfulness  and  hon- 
esty of  the  apprentice,  and  binds  himself  to  assume  full 
liability  for  all  damages  which  the  latter  may  intention- 
ally or  through  gross  carelessness  cause  his  employer. 

§7 

Premature  Dissolution  of  Contract 

Repeated  gross  violations  of  the  promises  of  the  ap- 
prentice with  reference  to  obedience,  secrecy,  or  moral 
conduct,  will,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
Commercial  Code  bearing  upon  such  cases,  be  consid- 
ered as  weighty  grounds  for  the  immediate  dissolution 
of  the  existing  relations. 

§8 

Extension  of  the  Apprentice  Period  in  Special  Cases 

In  case  the  apprentice,  through  illness  or  for  any 
other  cause  for  which  the  employer  is  not  responsible, 
is  away  from  business  for  three  consecutive  months, 
the  employer  is  empowered  to  demand  that  the  appren- 


238  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

ticc  make  up  this  lost  time  by  extending  the  period  of 
the  indenture  for  a  corresponding  length  of  time. 


§9 

Solicitude  for  Assistantship 

The  employer  promises  to  use  his  best  efforts  before 
the  termination  of  the  apprenticeship  to  help  the  ap- 
prentice find  a  position  as  assistant  which  the  latter's 
knowledge  and  ability  would  qualify  him  to  fill. 

He  further  promises,  in  the  event  of  giving  up  the 
business,  or  removing  it  to  another  place,  to  interest 
himself  in  helping  the  apprentice  find  another  similar 
position. 

§10 

Other  Agreements 

It  is  further  agreed:  (Here  may  be  inserted  special 
stipulations  as  to  the  nature  of  the  training,  e.  g. :  one 
year  in  the  shop;  one  year  in  the  warehouse;  one  year 
in  the  office). 

§11 

Supplementary'-  Legal  Regulations 

If  further  arrangements,  not  covered  by  the  fore- 
going, are  to  be  made,  the  legal  regulations  pertaining 
thereto  will  govern  in  this  case. 


APPENDIX  239 

§12 

Settlement  of  Disputes 

All  disputes  arising  from  this  contractual  relation — 
so  far  as  a  Merchants'  Court  is  not  competent  to  deal 
with  the  case — are  to  be  adjusted  by  a  Court  of  Arbi- 
tration, in  accordance  with  §§  1025  ffg.  of  the  Civil 
Process  Code. 


The  foregoing  agreement  has  been  drawn  up  in  dupli- 
cate and  signed  personally  by  the  contracting  parties. 

Frankfurt  a/M,    19 


Employer:  Legal  Representative  of  the 

Apprentice: 

Rose  Brothers.  Wilhelm  Schiiler. 

Apprentice: 
Rudolf  Schiiler. 


APPENDIX  B 

LESSON    IN    CONVERSATIONAL    ENGLISH 

The  subjoined  lesson  in  English  (paragraph  1,  with 
supplementary  notes)  was  given  to  a  class  in  one  of 
the  divisions  of  the  Blisch  Institute,  in  Hamburg,  Feb- 
ruary 19,  1913.  I  have  appended  the  material  that  was 
probably  used  the  following  day,  since  it  contains  the 
reply  to  the  first  letter  and  so  completes  the  topic. 

The  Blisch  Institute  is  a  commercial  school,  founded 
by  the  "Clerks'  Association  of  1858."  It  offers  five 
courses  for  as  many  different  grades  of  commercial 
clerks,  or  those  preparing  to  enter  commercial  life.  The 
subject  matter  of  this  particular  division  consists  of 
twenty-eight  hours  of  required  work  per  week,  for  one 
year,  covering  the  ordinary  commercial  subjects,  includ- 
ing English.  One  of  the  conditions  for  entrance  to  this 
course  is  that  the  pupils  shall  have  spent  some  time  in 
actual  business.  The  section  that  I  visited  was  com- 
posed of  six  or  eight  young  men,  probably  twenty  years 
of  age.     The  class  was  not  supposed  to  have  studied 

240 


APPENDIX  241 

English  before  this  present  school  year,  Easter  to  Eas- 
ter, although  it  is  quite  possible  that  some  of  the  boys 
may  have  had  some  instruction  during  their  elementary 
school  course,  for  English  is  given  in  the  Volksschulen 
of  Hamburg.  These  students  had  at  all  events  had 
five  hours  of  English  work  per  week  for  nearly  a  year. 
The  lesson  is  given  herewith  in  order  to  show  what  can 
be  done  by  a  skilful  teacher  with  relatively  mature  stu- 
dents working  intensively,  at  high  pressure,  on  a  narrow 
range  of  commercial  work.  It  was  by  all  odds  the  best 
work  in  commercial  English  that  it  has  ever  been  my 
good  fortune  to  hear. 

The  German  was  read  through  by  the  teacher,  sen- 
tence by  sentence,  and  translated  into  English  by  the 
pupils.  Then  the  whole  was  gone  over  again,  in  order 
to  acquire  variety  of  expression.  Nearly  every  varia- 
tion found  here  was  contributed  by  some  member  of 
the  class,  but  the  teachers  supplied  a  few  expressions 
which  were  not  forthcoming  from  the  pupils.  Aside 
from  the  reading  of  the  original  text,  everything  was 
conducted  in  English,  and  differences  of  meaning  were 
discussed  with  surprising  minuteness.  The  lesson 
brings  into  play  largely  words  and  expressions  of  use 
in  a  particular  kind  of  a  business  transaction,  but,  when 
this  same  method  is  carried  on  throughout  the  year,  it 
is  evident  that  the  pupil  will  acquire  a  breadth  of  vo- 


242  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

cabulary  and  a  variety  of  expression  that  will  stand 
him  in  good  stead  in  the  export  trade.^ 

BUTTERGESCHAFT    ZWISCHEN    LONDON    UND    HOLLAND 

1.  London  schreibt  Delft:  sie  verdanken  deren 
Adresse  ihren  gemeinsamen  Freunden,  d.  h.  X  &  Co., 
und  ersuchen,  ihncn  mitteilen  zu  woUen,  zu  welch  aus- 
serstem  Preise  dieselben  bereit  seien,  ihnen  Prima  hol- 
landische  Butter  in  wochentlichen  Sendungen  von  420 
Pfund  abzugeben.  Den  Preis  mochten  sie  f.o.b.  Har- 
wich, einschliesslich  Passer  gestellt  haben  und  sie  ges- 
tatten  sich  noch  hinzufiigen,  dass  falls  ihnen  Preis  und 
Qualitat  der  Ware  zusagten,  es  nicht  ausgeschlossen  sei, 
dass  sie  eher  das  Doppelte  abnahmen. 

2.  Delft  erwidernd,  dankt  bestens  fiir  die  Anfrage, 
und  in  Erledigung  derselben  iiberreicht  London  den 
Delft'schen  wochentlichen  Marktbericht,  aus  welchem 
letzterer  die  augenblicklich  massgebenden  Butterpreise 
ersehen  konne.  Es  sei  Delft  sehr  daran  gelegen  ein 
regelmassiges  Geschaft,  wie  angedeutet  mit  London 
zustande  zu  bringen,  und  sei  Delft  zu  solchem  Zwecke 
auch  gem  bereit  seine  Preise  so  massig  wie  moglich  zu 
stellen.  Delft  biete  London  daher  das  erwahnte  Quan- 
tum Butter  in  prima  Qualitat  auf  Grund  eines  Rabatts 

'  For  much  of  the  actual  lesson  material  under  paragraph  1  that 
follows,  and  for  all  that  under  paragraph  2,  I  am  indebted  to  the 
teacher,  Mr.  William  Maurice,  who  allowed  me  to  make  use  of  his 
manuscript  copy,  which  he  will  eventually  publish  in  book  form. 


APPENDIX  243 

von  20  %  auf  den  jeweiligen  Delft'schen  Marktwert, 
und  zwar,  f.o.b.  Harwich,  wie  gewiinscht,  an  und  hoffe, 
dass  dieser  gewiss  sehr  vorteilhafte  Einkaufspreis  Lon- 
don veranlassen  werde,  auf  das  betreffende  Geschaft 
einzugehen.  Die  Zahlungsbedingungei  seien  netto  gegen 
Anschaffung  innerhalb  14  Tage. 

EQUIVALENT    ENGLISH    EXPRESSIONS    TO    ACCOMPANY    GER- 
MAN   TEXT 

1.  We  have  to  thank  our  common  friends,  Messrs. 

for  your  address    Your 

name  has  been  given  us  by  We  are  in- 
debted to  our  common  friends   for  your 

firm We  owe  the  favor  of  your  address 

to    We   have   been    favored   with   your 

name  by  Our  friends,  Messrs ._.j 

having  mentioned  your  name  to  us. 

We  beg  you  to  advise  us  at  what  lowest  price  .... 
Kindly  inform  us  of  the  best  price  ....  Please  let  us 
have  your  lowest  quotation  for  ...  .  We  shall  be  glad 
to  learn  your  ....  What  would  be  the  best  you  could 
do  for  us  for  regular  orders,  say  for  .  .  .  .,  in  butter? 

Please  quote  f.o.b Prices  to  be  ...  .    Prices 

f.o.b Goods  to  be  delivered  f.o.b Please 

quote  on  f.o.b.  terms  ....     We  should  like  .... 

Prices  are  to  include  tubs  ....  casks  ....  Prices, 
with    tubs    included  ....      Quotations,    inclusive    of 


244  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

tubs  ....  Kindly  state  prices,  including  tubs  .... 
Please  note  the  prices  must  include  packing. 

We  would  add  that  ....  We  beg  to  add  ....  We 
should  like  also  to  point  out  ....  We  would  further 
mention  that  ....     We  may  also  mention  that. 

It  is  not  impossible  ....  It  is  not  unlikely  .... 
There  is  every  likelihood  of  ...  .  It  is  quite  possible 
that  ....  It  is  by  no  means  unlikely  that  ....  It 
may  very  well  be  that. 

Should  the  price  and  quality  suit  us  ...  .  If  quality 
and  price  are  satisfactory  ....  Should  quotations  and 
descriptions  meet  our  requirements  ....  If  your  of- 
fers are  found  satisfactory. 

We  might  order  even  double  that  quantity  .... 
Even  double  that  quantity  might  be  required  ....  It 
might  be  a  question  of. 

2.  We  are  exceedingly  obliged  for  your  kind  inquiry  . . . 
We  thank  you  for  ...  .    Pray  accept  our  best  thanks. 

In  answer  to  your  kind  inquiry  ....  Agreeably  to 
your  yesterday's  inquiry  ....  Corresponding  to  your 
inquiry  of.  .  .  .    Against  your  kind  inquiry  .  .  . 

We  have  much  pleasure  in  handing  you  herewith 
our  ....  We  take  pleasure  in  ...  .  We  are  pleased 
to  ...  .  We  now  beg  to  accompany  our  ....  We 
have  the  pleasure  of  enclosing  our  ....  We  beg  to 
refer  you  to  our  weekly  market  report  enclosed. 

From  which  you  will  gather  the  prices  actually  ruling 


APPENDIX  245 

in  our  market  ....  Which  will  inform  you  of  ...  . 
From  which  you  will  learn  our  actual  prices  ....  In- 
forming you  of  ...  .  Apprising  you  of  ...  .  Giving 
to-day's  quotation. 

We  are  very  anxious  to  ...  .  We  should  be  very 
happy  to  ...  .  We  should  very  much  like  to  ...  . 
We  are  particularly  desirous  of  ...  .  anxious  to  ...  . 
It  would  afford  us  particular  pleasure  to. 

To  do  a  trade  with  you,  as  indicated  ....  To  come 
to  terms  for  the  business  of  which  you  hold  out  pros- 
pects ....  To  bring  about  a  regular  business,  as  pro- 
posed. 

We  are  quite  prepared  to  ...  .  We  should  be  very 
pleased  to  ...  .  We  are  quite  willing  to  ...  .  We 
should  be  quite  prepared  to. 

Reduce  our  prices  as  far  as  possible  ....  To  con- 
tent ourselves  with  the  smallest  possible  margin  .... 
profit  ....  Be  satisfied  with  the  minimum  profit .... 
Put  our  prices  on  the  lowest  possible  basis  ....  Put 
you  on  the  very  best  buying  terms  ....  Put  you  on 
the  very  best  footing  ....  Calculate  our  prices  as 
close  as  ever  possible  ....  Give  you  the  closest  pos- 
sible quotations. 

The  quantity  in  question  ....  The  quantity  indi- 
cated .  .  .  mentioned  .  .  .  specified  .  .  .  stated  .  .  .  given 
.  .  .  desired  .  .  .  required. 

On  the  basis  of  ...  .     At  market  rates  with  a  re- 


246  COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION    IN    GERMANY 

bate  .  .  .  reduction  ,  ,  .  discount  ....  At  the  ruling 
prices  less  ....  At  the  current  rates  with  a  trade  dis- 
count ....  "With  a  discount  of  ...  off  the  quotations 
ruling  at  the  time  ...  off  the  day's  rates  .  .  .  f.o.b. 
Harwich  ....    For  goods  delivered  f.o.b. 

Prime  quality  ....     First-class  grade,  as  desired. 

We  trust  that  our  offer,  which  is  certainly  very  ad- 
vantageous ...  a  very  favorable  one  may  .  .  .  will  in- 
duce you  ....  We  hope  you  will  be  induced  by  so 
favorable  a  quotation  ....  We  trust  you  will  see  your 
way,  in  the  face  of  so  advantageous  a  price  ....  In 
consideration  of  ...  we  hope  to  be  favored  with  your 
valued  order  ....  We  have  no  doubt  our  quotation 
will  offer  you  the  requisite  inducement  to  ...  .  With 
this  favorable  offer  in  hand  we  feel  confident  you  will. 

Entertain  the  business  ....  Take  the  matter 
up  ...  .  Be  willing  to  pass  us  your  orders  ....  Be 
prepared  to  lay  down  a  contract  ....  Have  no  hesi- 
tation in  confirming  the  order  ....  Put  the  matter 
into  practical  shape. 

Cash  within  ten  days,  net  ....  Terms:  net  cash 
in  eight  days  ....  Net  cash  against  remittance  within 
seven  days. 

THE    END 


INDEX 


The  following  abbreviations  are  used  in  this  index:  com.,  commercial:  cont., 
continuation:  s.,  school:  ss.,  schools.  The  significance  of  the  other  abbreviations 
will  be  readily  apparent. 


Absence,  s.,  225  f.;  in  cont.  ss.,  53. 

Academic  freedom  in  German  universi- 
ties, 203. 

Academies,  defined,  18. 

Academy  plan,  Franklin's,  139  n. 

Accounting,  in  Munich  com.  cont.  s., 
121. 

Adam,  Paul,  quoted,  229-230. 

Administrative  councillor,  Prussian, 
30-31. 

Administrative  district  council,  31. 

Admission  requirements,  evening  com. 
ss.,  Berhn,  147. 

Age  Umits,  in  com.  cont.  as.,  43-44. 

Agriculture,  ss.  of,  19. 

Aim,  pubUc  s.,  14. 

American  ss.,  compared  with  German 
ss.,  174,  176. 

American  vs.  German  educational  con- 
ditions, 137-138. 

Anglophobia  in  Germany,  65. 

Apothecary  and  druggist,  differentiated, 
150. 

Applications  of  German  educational 
ideas  to  American  conditions,  chap, 
vii. 

Apprentice  indenture,  copy  of.  Appen- 
dix A. 

Apprentice  period,  45,  50-52. 

Apprentice  system,  44  fF. ;  passing  of,  48. 

Apprenticeship,  7. 

Apprenticeship  period,  length  of,  45, 
172. 

Apprenticeship  system,  failure  to  re- 
spond to  modern  demands,  194-195. 


Arabic,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne,  214- 

215. 
Arbeiter.     See  Labor  conditions. 
Aristocracy,  intellectual,  persistence  of, 

11. 
Aristocratic  ideals  in  social  and  educa- 
tional world,  9. 
Arithmetic,  in  com.  cont.  as.,  con- 
trasted with  that  in  elementary  s., 
87-88;  in  cont.  ss.,  15-16;  in  Dort- 
mund a.,  114-115;  in  druggists' 
course,  Frankfort,  150  f.;  in  Frankfort 
com.  Realschule  program,  156;  in 
lower  com.  ss.,  based  upon  com.  sci- 
ence, 71;  in  Munich  com.  cont.  s.,  121, 
125-126;  in  Munich  and  Prussian 
com.  s.  programs,  135;  week  hours  in 
lower  com.  ss.,  58  ff. 
Arithmetic,  commercial,  in  com.  Real-s. 
course,  158;  week  hours  in  Hamburg, 
80  n. 

Mental,  in  com.  cont.  s.,  86. 
Study  of,  in  com.  cont.  ss.,  83-93; 
aim,  83;  method  of  treatment, 
85-87;    aubject   matter,    83-85; 
typical  leaaons,  89-93. 
Vocational   nature   of    instruction 
in,  66. 
Assistants,  at  Cologne  college  of  com- 
merce, 204. 
Atlas,   use   of,   in  geography   teaching, 

129-130. 
Attendance,    compulaory,    12;    enforce- 
ment of,  36,  224  ff.;  in  cont.  ss.,  re- 


247 


24S 


INDEX 


aponsibility  for,  52-53;  in  Munich 
com.  cont.  ss.,  120. 

Attitude  of  merchants  toward  compul- 
sory cont.  s.,  116-117. 

Austro-Hungary,  cont.  ss.  investigated 
in,  231-232. 

Authority,  educational,  in  Prussia,  27. 

B.\DEN,  compulsory  cont.  s.  in,  21;  sep- 
arate s.  system,  8. 

Baier,  Hans,  director  of  Munich  com. 
cont.  8.,  136. 

Bakers,  course  for,  at  Munich,  122. 

Banking,  lesson  on,  in  lower  com.  s., 
7&-80. 

Barbers'   association,    Mannheim,    222. 

Barmen,  chamber  of  commerce,  32; 
character  of  com.  science  instruction 
in  ss.  of,  67;  clerks'  association,  34; 
occupations  of  com.  s.  pupils,  49; 
wages  paid  to  girl  stenographers,  110. 

Basedow  and  the  Philanthropinist 
movement,  140. 

Bavaria,  compulsory  cont.  s.  in,  21;  re- 
ligious instruction  in  ss.,  27. 

Belgium,  cont.  ss.  investigated  in,  231- 
232. 

Berlin,  college  of  commerce,  197  f.,  221; 
cont.  s.  population,  16;  cont.  s.  regu- 
lations, 15-16;  early  com.  s.  at,  20; 
growth  of  com.  population,  142. 

Berlin  merchants'  corporation,  support- 
er of  com.  classes,  146  f.,  221. 

Bills  of  exchange,  lesson  on,  in  lower 
com.  s.,  75-78;  regiilations,   72. 

Bismarck,  against  the  proletariat,  9-10; 
unification  under,  8. 

Board  of  government,  33;  in  Munich 
com.  cont.  s.,  119-120. 

Bonn,  university  of,  200. 

Bookkeeping,  in  com.  cont.  ss.,  aim,  93, 
method  of  instruction,  94-97,  subject 
matter,  93-94,  week  hours,  58  ff. ;  in 
com.  higher  s.,  Frankfort,  162;  in 
com.  Real-s.  course,  158;  in  Frank- 
fort com.  Realschule  program,  156;  in 
Leipzig  com.  in.stitute,  175,  177,  188, 
190;  in  lower  com.  ss.,  based  upon 
com.  science,  71;  in  Munich  and  Prus- 
sian com.  8.  programs,  135;  in  Munich 


com.  cont.  s.  course,  121,  126-128; 
vocational  nature  of  instruction  in, 
06;  week  hours  in  girls'  com.  a. 
courses,  109  n.;  week  hours  in  Ham- 
burg cont.  8.,  80  D. 

Bremen,  careers  of  Real-8.  graduates, 
141. 

Brcslau,  growth  of  com.  population,  142. 

Budget,  com.  education,  in  Cologne,  37; 
com.  8.  35;  Munich  com.  cont.  s.,  124. 

Building  trades  section  of  council  on 
industrial  ss.,  28. 

Buildings  and  equipment,  Prussia,  38- 
40;  South  Germany,  39. 

Buildings,  cont.  s.,  24. 

Burgerkunde,  131-132.  See  also  Train- 
ing for  citizenship. 

Biirgerlichesgesetzbuch.    See  Civil  code. 

Burger-s.  pupils,  151. 

Burgerschule,  173,  176,  189. 

Business  correspondence,  in  Munich 
com.  cont.  s.  course,  128-129;  week 
hours  in  Hamburg  cont.  a.,  80  n. 

Business  forms,  69,  70,  and  n. 

Business  science,  week  hours  in  Ham- 
burg cont.  s.,  80  n.;  lesson  in,  in  lower 
com.  s.,  80-83. 

Career,  choice  of,  5-6,  141. 

Catholic  influence  in  establishing  com- 
pulsory religious  instruction,  134-135. 

Centralization  of  control,   11,  221. 

Chain  rule,  in  arithmetic  course  in  com. 
cont.  s.,  85. 

Chamber  of  commerce,  31-35,  220  ff.; 
active  in  founding  com.  ss.,  30,  146; 
function  of,  in  com.  s.  affairs,  32  ff. ; 
maintains  employment  office,  45; 
Paris,  investigates  cont.  ss.,  231-232. 

Character  building,  an  aim  of  the  cont. 
s.,  61. 

Chemistry,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne, 
214;  at  Frankfort,  150  f.,  162;  at  Leip- 
zig com.  institute,  177,  181,  190. 

Chinese,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne,  214- 
215. 

Citizenship,  indirect  instruction  in,  69; 
in  Munich  com.  cont.  s.,  121;  training 
for,  66.    See  also  Civics. 


INDEX 


249 


Civics,  instruction  in,  in  com.  cont.  ?8., 
97-100;  in  Dortmund  s.,  114-115;  in 
Munich  and  Prussian  com.  s.  pro- 
grams, 135;  nature  of,  66;  week  hours, 
in  girls'  com.  s.  courses,  109  n.;  week 
hours  in  lower  com.  ss.,  58  ff. 

Civil  code,  use  of,  in  instruction,  71. 

Classes,  size  of,  in  Munich  com.  cont. 
3.,  136. 

Clerical  and  anti-clerical  influence  in 
Prussian  cont.  ss.,  27. 

Coeducation,  in  com.  higher  s.,  Barmen, 
169. 

Colleges  of  commerce,  18,  143,  chap,  vi.; 
influence  of,  upon  Germany's  indus- 
trial progress,  197;  listed,  197;  status, 
196-197. 

Collier,  Price,  quoted,  99. 

Cologne,  careers  of  Real-3.  graduates, 
141;  com.  education  budget,  37;  com. 
Real-s.,  160;  growth  of  com.  popula- 
tion, 142;  Handelsreal-3.,  29;  quaUfi- 
cations  of  com.  teachers,  42;  vocation- 
al guidance,  44-48. 

Cologne  college  of  commerce,  198-218, 
223;  cost  of  plant,  200;  courses  of  in- 
struction, content,  210-215;  diploma, 
215-216;  enrollment,  209-210;  exam- 
inations, 215-217;  fees,  207;  founda- 
tion, 198-200;  government,  201-202; 
purpose,  200-201;  secret  societies, 
210-211;  seminar  students,  208; 
teachers'  training  course,  216-217; 
teaching  stafi,  203;  training  s.  for 
com.  teachers,  201. 

Cologne  college  of  commerce:  students, 
204-211;  auditors,  208;  classes  of, 
207-208;  foreign  element,  206-207;  in 
administration,  208-209;  Ufe  of,  209- 
211;   preparation  of,  206-207. 

Commerce  and  industry,  ministry  of, 
28,  30. 

Commerce,  colleges  of.  See  Colleges  of 
commerce. 

Commercial  arithmetic,  in  com.  higher 
8.,  Frankfort,  162;  in  Leipzig  com. 
institute,  175,  177,  188;  week  hours  in 
girls'  com.  s.  courses,  109  n. 

Commercial  and  banking  law,   in  com. 


higher  s.,  Frankfort,  162;  in  Leipzig 
com.  institute,  177,  188,  190. 

Commercial  code,  imperial,  32,  42,  72; 
regulations  of,  96-97;  used  in  instruc- 
tion, 71. 

Commercial  cont.  ss.,  control  of,  27; 
growth  01,  22  £F.;  Munich,  chap  iv.; 
Prussian,  sources  of  income,  25. 

Commercial  correspondence,  in  com. 
higher  s.,  Frankfort,  162;  in  Munich 
com.  cont.  s.,  121;  in  Mimich  and 
Prussian  com.  s.  programs,  135. 

Commercial  courses,  attitude  of  busi- 
ness interests  toward,  154-155;  for 
girls,  21;  length  of,  111;  one-year  vs. 
three-year,    111-114. 

Commercial  education,  growth  of,  20  fif. 

Commercial  geography,  in  Munich  com. 
cont.  s.,  121,  129-130,  135. 

Commercial  higher  s.,  contrast  with 
com.  cont.  s.,  163-164,  169;  Frank- 
fort, 161-171,  course,  161-164,  168- 
170,  examination  questions,  165-168, 
week  hours,  162;  modern  language, 
instruction  in,  importance  of,  164- 
165;  purpose,  164;  significance  of 
term,  163. 

Commercial  institute.  See  Frankfort 
commercial  institute;  and  Leipzig 
commercial  institute. 

Commercial  papers,  week  hours  for,  in 
girls'  com.  s.  courses,  109  n. 

Commercial  population,  growth  of,  141- 
142. 

Commercial  Real-ss.,  clientele,  160-161; 
comparison  with  cont,  ss.,  158-160; 
expense  to  parents,  160-161;  Frank- 
fort course,  154-158;  Prussian,  160. 

Commercial  register,  32. 

Commercial  regulations  in  Munich  com. 
cont.  s.,  121,  132,  135. 

Commercial  ss.,  15;  characteristics, 
219-227;  differentiation  among,  20- 
21;  distribution,  26-27;  early,  25-26; 
founders  of,  28;  Frankfort,  fitting  for 
com.  life,  165;  growth  of,  26;  outside 
Prussia,  118;  salaries  of  teachers  in, 
41;  secondary,  18,  chap,  v.;  signifi- 
cance of  movement  for,  in  Frankfort, 
165;  statistics,  22-24. 


250 


INDEX 


Commercial  srionoo,  cont^^r  of  instruc- 
tion in  lower  com.  s.i.,  71;  defined, 
67;  in  com.  Real-s.  course,  108;  in 
Dortmund  s.,  114-115;  in  early  com. 
M.,  140;  in  Frankfort  com.  Realschule 
program,  156;  in  Leipzig  com.  insti- 
tute, 175,  177,  188,  190;  in  lower  com. 
83.,  67-69;  in  Prussian  com.  8.  pro- 
gram, 135;  methods  of  teaching,  71- 
73;  vocational  nature  of,  66;  week 
hours  in  Hamburg  cont.  s.,  80  n.,  in 
lower  com.  ss.,  58  ff. 

Commercial  secondary  s.  See  Commer- 
cial higher  school. 

Commercial  subjects,  in  Frankfort  com. 
Realschule,  157-158. 

Commercial  success,  4-5. 

Commercial  supremacy,  struggle  for,  20. 

Commercial  technique  at  Cologne,  213. 

Commercial  theorj',  in  com.  higher  s., 
Frankfort,  162;  in  Dortmund  s.,  114- 
115;  in  Leipzig  com.  institute,  177, 
188,  190;  week  hours,  in  girls'  com.  s. 
courses,  109  n. 

Commodities  of  commerce,  instruction 
in,  at  Cologne,  214;  in  Dortmund  s. 
program,  114-115;  in  Frankfort  com. 
higher  s.,  162;  in  Leipzig  com.  insti- 
tute, 177,  182-183,  188,  190;  in  Mu- 
nich com.  cont.  s.  course,  121, 130-131, 
135;  week  hours,  in  girls'  com.  s. 
courses,  109  n. 

Commodity  groups,  in  Munich  com. 
cont.  s.,  122. 

Composition,  indirect  instruction  in,  70. 

Compulsory  attendance,  12;  in  com.  ss., 
42-44;  in  Germany  and  the  United 
States,  137,  224-226. 

Confectioners,  course  for,  at  Munich, 
122. 

Continuation  s.,  6,  227-234;  a  prepara- 
tion for  life,  233;  a  special  s.,  233;  aim, 
61-62;  comparison  with  com.  s. 
courses  at  Dortmund,  115;  compul- 
sory regulation  in  East  Prussia,  22  n.; 
employers'  opposition  to  day  classes, 
231-232;  enforcement  of  attendance, 
43-44,  52-53,  226;  foreign  experience 
against  evening  classes  in,  230-231; 
formative  influence  of,  112  £f.;  legal 


provisions  for,  in  Prussia,  31;  Mann- 
heim, 222;  Munich,  chap,  iv.;  obliga- 
tory in  German  states,  21 ;  problem  of, 
57;  p\ipils  practically  excluded  from 
banking  business,  1.59;  sessions,  24; 
teaching  force,  40-42;  vs.  elementary 
8.,  87-88. 

Continuation  ss.,  12,  13-16;  advisability 
of  introducing  into  United  States,  229 
ff.;  basis  for  organization,  14-15;  com. 
type  of,  21;  compulsory,  13;  funda- 
mental considerations  regarding,  228 
ff.;  growth  of,  22  ff.;  industrial,  22, 
24;  optional,  22-23;  prevalence  of,  21 
ff.;  Prussian  com.  sources  of  income, 
25;  statistical  table  for  Prussian,  23, 
25;  statistics  of  compulsory,  22-24; 
suggestions  for  American  adoption, 
229-230;  supported  by  guilds,  21,  23, 
24;  supported  by  municipalities,  24; 
supported  by  unions,  21,  23,  24. 

Control,  centralization  of,  in  education, 
11;  local,  9;  professional  9;  state,  8-9. 

Cooperation,  ci\'ic,  in  s.  affairs,  119-120. 

Cooperation  of  interests  in  German 
com.  ss.,  219-222. 

Corporations  and  insurance,  instruction 
in,  at  Cologne,  214. 

Correspondence,  in  com.  Real-s.  course, 
158;  in  Frankfort  com.  Realschule 
program,  156;  in  Leipzig  com.  insti- 
tute, 175,  177,  188,  190;  in  Munich 
and  Prussian  com.  a.  program,  135; 
vocational  nature  of  instruction  in, 
66;  week  hours  in  lower  com.  ss.,  58  ff. 

Council  on  industrial  ss.,  28. 

Counting-room  work,  in  Leipzig  com. 
institute,  175,  177,  190. 

Course  of  study,  in  elementary  s.,  12, 
29-30;  in  Frankfort  com.  Realschule, 
156-158. 

Course,  one-year  vs.  three-year  com., 
111-117. 

Courses,  com.,  at  Munich,  119. 

Courses  of  instruction.  iSee  under 
Cologne  college  of  commerce. 


Danish    language,    instruction    in,    at 
Cologne,  214-215. 


INDEX 


251 


Democracy,  social,  tabooed  by  the  gov- 
crmnent,  66. 

Deportment,  week  hours  in  Hamburg 
cont.  8.,  80  n. 

Differentiation  among  secondary  ss., 
140  f. 

Director,  local,  31;  of  com.  s.,  35,  power 
and  duties,  35-36;  of  college  of  com- 
merce, 198. 

Discipline,  s.,  53-54. 

Dortmund,  girls'  com.  s.  courses,  109  n.; 
one-year  and  three-year  com.  course, 
111-117;  s.  enrollment  (1912-1913), 
115-116. 

Dozenten.     See  Instructors. 

Drawing,  in  cont.  ss.,  15-16;  in  Frank- 
fort Realschule  program,  156. 

Druggist  and  apothecary,  differentiated, 
150. 

Druggists'  association,  Frankfort,   151. 

Duisburg,  character  of  com.  science  in- 
struction in,  67. 

Dutch  language,  instruction  at  Cologne, 
214-215. 

Economic  conditions  in  Germany,  2-3, 
177-178. 

Economic  geography,  in  com.  cont.  ss., 
aim,  100,  application,  101-102,  meth- 
od, 102-104,  subject  matter,  100-101; 
in  Dortmund  s.,  114—115;  in  Prussian 
com.  s.  program,  135;  suggested  time 
distribution  in  cont.  ss.,  102;  week 
hours,  in  girls'  com.  s.  courses,  109  n. ; 
week  hours  in  lower  com.  ss.,  59.  See 
also  Geography,  economic. 

Economics,  in  com.  higher  s.,  Frankfort, 
162;  in  Leipzig  com.  institute,  177, 
188. 

Economy,  s.,  223-227. 

Education,  history  of,  in  teachers' 
course  at  Cologne,  216;  ministry  of, 
30;  of  girls,  153;  popular,  extent  of, 
10;  respon.sible  authority  for,  Ger- 
many and  the  United  States  com- 
pared, 224. 

Educational  authorities,  conservatism 
of,   1.57. 

Educational   opportunity,    10. 

Educational  organization,  control,  7-9. 


Educational  system,  chap,  i.;  large 
groups  in,  19. 

Einjahrige  freiwilliger.  See  Military 
service. 

Eisenbahnverkehr,  75. 

Elberfeld,  character  of  com.  science  in- 
struction in,  67;  com.  higher  s.,  ex- 
cursions, 170;  com.  s.,  34,  39,  223; 
qualifications  of  com.  teachers,  42; 
support  of  com.  ss.,  37. 

Elective  courses,  at  Cologne,  213-214. 

Elective  subjects,  in  Leipzig  com.  in- 
stitute, 177,  188;  in  Munich  com. 
cont.  s.,  121,  123. 

Elementary  and  secondary  ss.,  relations 
between,  17-18. 

Elementary  ss.,  6,  10;  contrasted  with 
cont.  ss.,  87-88;  course  of  study,  12, 
29 ;  difficulty  of  passage  to  university, 
10-11. 

Employers,  opposition  of,  to  day  cont. 
s.  classes,  231-232;  responsibiUty  in 
s.  attendance,  16. 

Employment,  conditions  of,  44-52. 

Engineering  section  of  council  on  indus- 
trial ss.,  28. 

English  language,  in  com.  higher  s., 
Frankfort,  162;  in  com.  Real-s. 
course,  158;  in  Frankfort  com.  Real- 
schule program,  156;  in  Leipzig  com. 
institute,  175,  177,  179,  188  f.;  in 
Munich  com.  cont.  s.  course,  133;  in- 
struction in,  at  Cologne,  214-215;  les- 
son in.  Appendix  B. 

Enrollment,  s.,  at  Dortmund,  115-116. 

Equipment,  3.,  Prussia,  38-40.  See  also 
Buildings  and  equipment. 

Esperanto,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne, 
214-215. 

Evening  com.  courses,  Berlin,  146  f. 

Examination  of  ss.,  7. 

Examination  questions  in  com.  higher 
s.,  Frankfort:  bookkaeping,  167-168; 
chemistry  and  commodities  of  com- 
merce, 168;  com.  arithmetic,  167; 
com.  correspondence,  166-168;  Eng- 
lish, 166;  French,  166;  German,  166. 

Exchange,  bill  of.  See  Bills  of  exchange 
regulations. 


252 


INDEX 


Excursions,  9.,  217-218;  technical,  in 
Leipsig  com.  institute,  183. 

Fachschule,  defined,  57. 

Fees,  in  Leiprig  com.  institute,  173,  176; 
in  Mittelschulen,  13;  in  Munich  com. 
cont.  s.,  124;  income  from  tuition,  in 
Prussian  com.  cont.  ss.,  25;  school, 
116. 

Fichtc  Real-s.,  Schoneberg,  155. 

Fine,  employers',  36. 

Flexibility  of  program,  in  lower  com.  ss., 
59  ff. 

Foreign  language  instruction,  at  Co- 
logne, 214-215. 

Foreign  students,  at  Leipzig  com.  in- 
stitute, 173. 

Forestrj',  ss.  of,  19. 

Fortbildungsschulen.  See  Continuation 
schools. 

France,  educational  control  in,  con- 
trasted with  German  system,  7-8; 
new  secondary  program  in,  197;  s. 
system  compared  with  that  of  Ger- 
many, 11-12. 

Frankfort,  college  of  commerce,  197  f., 
221. 

Frankfort,  commercial  institute,  147- 
171:  apprentices'  and  assistants' 
courses,  149-150;  com.  higher  s.,  161- 
171;  com.  Real-course,  29,  154-158, 
progress,  160-161;  compared  with 
Leipzig  s.,  222-223;  departments, 
148;  druggists'  course  program,  150- 
151;  English  instruction,  149;  enroll- 
ment, 148  ff.;  fees,  149;  French  in- 
struction, 149;  girls'  courses,  152-154; 
joint  ministerial  control,  156- 157;  one- 
year  vs.  two-year  course  for  girls,  152- 
154;  special  evening  courses,  148-149; 
week  hours  of  com.  Realschulc,  156. 
Growth  of  com.  population  of,  142. 
University,  197  n.,  198. 

Franklin's  academy,  plan  of,  139  n. 

French,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne,  214- 
215;  in  com.  Real-s.  course,  158;  in 
Frankfort  com.  higher  s.,  162;  in 
Frankfort  com.  Realschule  program, 
156;  in  Leipzig  com.  institute,  175, 
177,  179, 188  f.;  in  Munich  com.  cont. 


8.  course,  133;  preparatory  course  at 
Frankfort,  152-153. 

Games,  recommended  for  lower  com. 
ss.,  59;  week  hours  in  girls'  com.  s. 
courses,  109  n. 

Geography,  in  com.  Real-s.  course,  168; 
in  elementary  ss.,  29-30;  in  Frank- 
fort com.  Realschulc  program,  156; 
instruction  in,  at  Cologne,  214. 

Geography,     commercial,    in     Leipzig 

com.  institute,  175,177,183-184,  188  f. 

Economic,    nature    of   instruction 

in,  66;  week  hours  in  lower  com. 

ss.,  59. 

Of  commerce  and  trade,  in  com. 

higher  s.,  Frankfort,   162. 

German  language,  in  com.  higher  s., 
Frankfort,  162;  in  cont.  ss.,  15-16; 
in  Frankfort  com.  Realschule  pro- 
gram, 156;  in  Leipzig  com.  institute, 
175,  177,  178-179,  188;  in  Prussian 
com.  s.  program,  135;  methods  of 
instruction  in,  70  ff.;  vocational  na- 
ture of  instruction  in,  66;  week  hours, 
in  girls'  com.  ss.,  109  n.,  in  Hamburg 
cont.  s.,  80  n.,  in  lower  com.  ss.,  58  ff. 
See  also  under  Mother  tongue. 

German  s.  system,  compared  with 
American,  18. 

German  union  for  com.  instruction,  26, 
140,  154. 

German  vs.  American  educational  con- 
ditions, 137-138. 

Germany,  cont.  ss.  investigated  in,  231- 
232. 

Geschaftskunde.     See  Business  science. 

Gewerbeordnung.  See  Trade  regula- 
tions, imperial. 

Gewerbeschulrat,  31. 

Girls'  com.  cont.  ss.,  106-110;  numbers 
of,  106;  programs  of  studies,  106-108. 

Girls'  com.  courses,  Dortmund,  109  n.; 
Frankfort,  152-154. 

Girls'  cont.  ss.,  13,  21;  objections  to 
compulsory,  108. 

Girls  in  com.  life,  106-107. 

Goethe,  quoted,  218. 

Government  employment  for  cont.  8. 
pupils,  52. 


i 


INDEX 


253 


Government,  paternalistic,  as  influenc- 
ing s.  practice,  62  fi. 

Grammar,  formal,  absence  of,  70. 

Greek,  in  Gymnasium,  17;  modern,  in- 
struction in,  at  Cologne,  214-215. 

Guild  cont.  ss.,  21,  23,  24. 

Gymnasium,  17,  140,  147,  162,  187. 

Gymnastics  and  games,  in  Dortmund  s., 
114-115;  week  hours  in  girls'  com. 
courses,  109  n. 

Gymnastics  in  com.  higher  s.,  Frankfort, 
162;  in  Frankfort  com.Realschule  pro- 
gram, 156;  in  girls'  com.  ss.,  108;  in 
Leipzig  com.  institute,  177;  recom- 
mended for  lower  com.  ss.,  59. 

Hamburg,  business  attitude  toward 
com.  S3.,  154-155;  careers  of  Real-s. 
graduates,  141;  character  of  com.  sci- 
ence instruction,  67;  conditions  con- 
trasted with  those  of  Prussia,  80;  cont. 
8.,  weekly  time  table,  80  n.;  early 
com.  ss.  in,  20,  140;  growth  of  com. 
population,  142;  occupations  of  com. 
s.  pupils,  49. 

Handelsgesetzbuch.  See  Commercial 
code. 

Handelshochschulen.  See  Colleges  of 
commerce. 

Handelskammer.  See  Chamber  of  com- 
merce. 

Handelskunde.  See  Commercial  sci- 
ence. 

Handelsreal-schools,    29. 

Handelsregister.  See  Commercial  reg- 
ister. 

Hecker,  founder  of  first  Real-s.,  139  f. 

Hesse,  compulsory  cont.  s.  in,  21. 

Higher  com.  s.,  30. 

Higher  education,  connotation,  18-19. 

Higher  s.,  exempt  from  compulsory  s. 
attendance  regulations,  15;  girls', 
153-154;  significance  of  term,  12, 
16-18. 

Hindustani,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne, 
214. 

History,  absence  of,  in  Prussian  cont. 
S3.,  40;  com.,  in  Leipzig  com.  institute, 
177,  188;  general,  in  Leipzig  com. 
institute,     177;    in    com.    higher    s., 


Frankfort,  162;  in  com.  Real-3. 
course,  158;  in  Frankfort  com.  Real- 
schule  program,  156;  in  Leipzig  com. 
institute,  184. 

HoUdays,  122,  123. 

Home  work,  111-112;  absence  of,  in 
com.  cont.  ss.,  95. 

Household  economy,  a  subject  of  in- 
struction in  girls'  com.  ss.,  107-108. 

Housewifery,  suggested  subject  in  girls' 
com.  ss.,  108. 

Humanistic  and  "modern"  courses,  par- 
ity between,  197. 

Humanistic  culture,  passing  dominance 
of,  194-195. 

Humboldt,  von,  reorganization  under,  8. 

Huxley,  quoted,  9. 


Ide.\ls,  monarchical,  9-11. 

Illiteracy,  in  German  army,  10;  in  Uni- 
ted States,  10. 

Incentives  in  German  s.  Ufe,  137. 

Income  of  Prussian  com.  ss.,  25. 

Indenture,  apprentice's,  copy  of,  Ap- 
pendix A. 

Independence  of  thought  among  Ger- 
man people,  65  f. 

Indiv-iduaUty,  development  of,  in  Ger- 
man s.  system,  62  ff. 

Industrial  conditions  in  Germany,  63  ff. 

Industrial  cont.  ss.,  growth,  22  f. ;  spe- 
cialized ss.,  87  f. 

Industrial  courses  for  girls,  21. 

Industrial  development,  German,  a  topic 
of  instruction,    129-130. 

Industrial  life,  stratification  of,  5-7. 

Industrial  ss.,  15;  council  on,  28;  found- 
ing bodies  of,  28;  secondary,  18;  sta- 
tistics, 22-24. 

Industries,  home,  visits  to,  223. 

Influence,  private,  lack  of,  in  s.  affairs,  9. 

Initiative,  spirit  of,  development  of, 
among  com.  higher  s.  pupils,  169-170; 
repressed,  64  ff. 

Inspection  of  ss.,  7-8. 

Instructors,  at  Cologne  college  of  com- 
merce, 204. 

Insurance,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne, 
214. 


254 


INDEX 


Itnlian  laiiKuaRO,  oleotivo  in  LcipziK 
com.  institute,  177,  170,  ISS;  instruc- 
tion in,  at  Cologne,  214-215;  optional, 
in  com.  higher  s.,  Frankfort,  152. 

Jap.^nese,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne, 
214-215. 

Kaufm.vnnsgericht.     See  Merchants' 

court. 
Ker3chenst<?iner,  Dr.,  interest  of,  in  civic 

instruction,   131-132;  quoted,  14. 
Kettenregel.     See  Chain  rule. 
Kettensatz.     See  Chain  rule. 
Kneipen,  210. 
Knork,  Dr.,  classification  of  com.  ss.  by, 

143-146. 
Kultusministerium,  27  ff.,  35. 
Kuratorium.    See  Board  of  government. 

Labor  conditions  in  Germany,  44-52. 

Landesgewerbeamt,  defined,  28. 

Languages,  foreign,  in  Munich  com. 
cont.  s.,  121,  123. 

Latin,  in  secondary  ss.,  17. 

Law  faculty,  18. 

Law  instruction  at  Cologne,  212-213. 

Law  violations  in  Germany,  99. 

Leaders  of  Germany,  training  of,  11. 

Lebenskunde,  131-132;  in  girls'  com. 
ss.,  107.  See  aZso  Training  for  citizen- 
ship. 

Lectors,  at  Cologne  college  of  com- 
merce, 204. 

Lehrer.     See  Teachers. 

Lehrfreiheit,  198. 

Leipzig,  college  of  commerce,  197  f.,  221; 
growth  of  city  com.  population,  142. 

Leipzig  commercial  institute,  171-195, 
223;  apprentices'  course,  175;  charac- 
ter of  the  course,  186-187;  comparison 
with  American  s.  conditions,  174  ff., 
with  P^ankfort  s.,  174,  222-223; 
courses,  173-176;  enrollment,  191; 
fees,  173;  foundation,  171-172;  one- 
year  courses,  187-189;  one-year  spe- 
cial course,  174-175;  one-year  vs. 
three-year  course,  189-191;  scholars' 
department,  176-177;  support,  193- 
194;    teaching    force    (appointment. 


(lualification.s,  and  training),  191-193; 
three-year  course,  174;  week  hours  in 
scholars'  department,  177. 

Leipzig  commercial  institute:  course  of 
study,  scholars'  department,  177-187; 
bookkeeping,     184-185;     chemistry, 
181-182;  com.  and  banking  law,  184- 
185;  com.  theory,  184-185;  commodi- 
ties of  commerce,  182;  correspondence, 
184-185;  economics,  185;  geography, 
183-184;  Gorman,    178-179;  history, 
184;  mathematics,   180-181;  modern 
languages,  179-180;  penmanship,  185- 
186;   physics,   181;   technology,   182- 
183. 
Lessons,  typical:    banking,  78-80; 
bills  of  exchange,  75-78;  bu.siness 
science,  80-83;  shipping,    73-75. 

Life  responsibilities,  a  subject  of  instruc- 
tion in  girls'  com.  ss.,  107. 

Literature,  absence  of  instruction  in, 
133. 

London,  influence  of  business  men  in  for- 
mulating program  of  studies,  232-233. 

Lower  com.  ss.,  chap.s.  ii.,  iii.,  iv.;  classi- 
fied, 145.  See  alao  Continuation 
schools. 

Magdeburg,  early  com.  s.  at,  20. 

Mannheim  college  of  commerce,  197  f., 
221. 

Massachusetts  and  New  York  s.  systems 
compared,  220-221. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
parallel  in  German  ss.,  18. 

Materialism,  in  Prussian  com.  s.  pro- 
gram,  135-136. 

Mathematics,  in  Frankfort  com.  Real- 
schule  program,  156;  in  Leipzig  com. 
institute,  177,  180-181,  189. 

Medical  faculty,  18. 

Merchants'  associations,  220;  active  in 
founding  com.  ss.,  146. 

Merchants,  attitude  of,  toward  compul- 
sory cont.  s.,   116-117. 

Merchants'  court,  34,  72. 

Methods  of  teaching,  in  comparison 
with  American  practices,  186-187;  in 
lower  com.  ss.,  94-97.  See  also  under 
various  subjects  of  instruction. 


INDEX 


255 


Mevissen,  von,  founder  of  Cologne  col- 
lege of  commerce,  199  ff. 

Middle  ss..  South  Germany,  16. 

Military  ss.,  19. 

Military  service,  51-52. 

Minister  of  agriculture,  134. 

Minister  of  commerce  and  industry,  28, 
30,  134,  146,  200  ff.;  in  control  over 
com.  higher  s.,  Frankfort,  161-162;  in 
partial  control  of  Frankfort  com.  in- 
stitute, 156-157;  regvilations  of,  58  ff.; 
representative  of,  on  boards  of  gov- 
ernment, 33  f . ;  statistics  of,  22  ff. 

Minister  of  education,  134,  156. 

Ministry  of  commerce  and  industry,  31 ; 
of  education,  30. 

Mittelschule,  basis  for  establishment, 
12-13. 

Modern  languages,  week  hours  in  lower 
com.  ss.,  59.  See  also  under  Arabic, 
Chinese,  Danish,  Dutch,  English,  Es- 
peranto, French,  Greek,  Hindustani, 
Italian,  Japanese,  Norwegian,  Per- 
sian, Portuguese,  Russian,  Spanish, 
Turkish. 

Mother  tongue,  instruction  in,  70-71. 
See  also  under  German  language. 

Munich,  college  of  commerce,  197  f., 
221;  growth  of  city  com.  population, 
142;  ideal  aim  of  ss.,  14-15. 

Munich  com.  cont.  s.,  chap,  iv.;  attend- 
ance, 120;  board  of  government,  119- 
120;  civic  cooperation  in,  119-120; 
comparison  with  Prussian  com.  cont. 
s.  program,  134-136;  courses,  119; 
expenses,  124;  fees,  124;  program  of 
week  hours,  120-121;  teaching  force, 
136. 

Munich  com.  cont.  s.:  subjects  of  in- 
struction, 121-134;  arithmetic,  125- 
126;  bookkeeping,  126-128;  business 
correspondence,  128-129;  com.  geog- 
raphy, 129-130;  com.  regulations, 
132;  commodities  of  commerce,  ISO- 
IS  1;  English,  133;  French,  133;  pen- 
manship, 133;  reading,  133;  religion, 
124-125;  stenography,  133;  theory  of 
exchange,  126;  training  for  citizen- 
ship, 131-132;  typewriting,  133. 


Municipal       ownership, 
through,  123. 


co()peratioD 


Napoleon,  influence  of,  7-8. 

Natural  science,  in  com.  Real-s.  course, 
158;  instruction  in,  at  Cologne,  214. 

Naval  ss.,   19. 

Neu  Koln,  enforcement  of  s.  attendance 
laws  in,  224r-225. 

Newspapers,  as  influencing  public  opin- 
ion, 65. 

New  York  and  Massachusetts  s.  sys- 
tems, 220-221. 

Nine-year  ss.,  17. 

Norwegian  language,  instruction  in,  at 
Cologne,  214-215. 

Oberrealschule,  4,  17,  140,  161,  162  f. 

Observation  and  practice  teaching,  at 
Cologne,    216-217. 

Occupations,  of  com.  s.  pupils,  49;  open 
to  physically  defective,  45. 

Oeffentliche  Handelslehranstalt  zu  Leip- 
zig. See  Leipzig  commercial  insti- 
tute. 

One-year  volunteer  privilege,  17;  cost  of, 
19;  social  prestige  of,  19. 

Organization,    educational,    7-9. 

Paren-t8,  dereliction  of,  36. 

Paris  chamber  of  commerce,  investiga- 
tions of,  231-232. 

Pedagogy,  in  teachers'  course  at  Co- 
logne, 216. 

Penmanship,  in  com.  higher  s.,  Frank- 
fort, 162;  in  Dortmund  s.,  114-115;  in 
Frankfort  com.  Realschule  program, 
156;  in  Leipzig  com.  institute,  175, 
177,  188;  in  Munich  com.  cont.  a., 
121,  133;  week  hours  in  girls'  com.  s. 
courses,  109  n. ;  in  lower  com.  ss.,  59  f. 

Persian  language,  instruction  in,  at 
Cologne,  214-215. 

Philanthropinist  movement,   140. 

Philosophical  faculty,  18. 

Physics,  in  com.  higher  s.,  Frankfort, 
162;  in  druggists'  course,  Frankfort, 
150  f.;  in  Leipzig  com.  institute,  177, 
181,  190. 


256 


INDEX 


Police  authority  over  a.  attendance,  3(3, 
53. 

Political  economy,  at  Cologne,  212. 

Political  freedom  of  thought,  repression 
of,  05  f. 

Population,  com.,  growth  of,  141-142. 

Portuguese  language,  instruction  in,  at 
Cologne,    214-215. 

Practice  teaching,  at  Cologne,  216-217. 

Preparation  of  teachers  in  com.  as.,  191- 
193. 

Preparatory  s.  for  Gymnasium.  See 
Vorschule. 

Privilege,  one-year  volunteer,  17. 

Program  of  studies,  9;  influence  of  busi- 
ness men  in  formulating,  232-233 
in  lower  com.  ss.,  chap,  iii.,  passim 
suggested,  for  lower  com.  ss.,  59-00 
week  hours,  in  Munich,  120-121. 

Progymnasium,  17. 

Prussia,  com.  cont.  a.  program  com- 
pared with  that  of  Munich,  134-136; 
distribution  of  com.  ss.  in,  26-27;  edu- 
cational reorganization,  7-8;  pater- 
nalistic nature  of  the  government  in, 
28;  population  of,  8  n. 

Psychology,  in  teachers'  course  at  Co- 
logne, 216. 

Punctuation,  absence  of  instruction  in, 
70. 

Pupils  in  com.  ss.,  42-44;  occupations 
of,  49 ;  numbers  in  Prussia,  25. 

Question  and  answer  method  of  in- 
struction, illustration,  79. 

Reading,  emphasis  upon,  71;  in  Mu- 
nich com.  cont.  s.  course,  133. 

Realgymnasium,  17,  140,  162. 

Realprogymnasium,  17. 

Real-school,  139  ff.,  147,  151,  157,  187, 
216. 

Realschule,  4,  17,  140  f.,  162  ff. 

Reckoning  ss.,  26. 

Rector,  198. 

Reform,  initiation  of,  220-221;  of  1900, 
17. 

Regierungsschulrat,  31. 

Religion,  instruction  in,  in  Bavarian 
cont.  88.,  134-135;  in  cont.  ss.,  27;  in 


Frankfort  com.  Realschule  program, 

156;  in   Munich  com.   cont.  s.,    121, 

124-125;    Prussian    joint    ministerial 

order  affecting,  134. 
Retail  merchants'  guild,  Leipzig,   173, 

170. 
Russian  language,  elective  in   Leipzig 

com.    institute,    177,    179-180,    188; 

instruction  in,  at  Cologne,  214-215. 


Salaries,  teachers',  in  com.  aa.,  41. 
Salesgirls,    Hamburg    cont.    s.    for,    80 

and  n. 
Saxe-Altenburg,  compulsory  cont.  8.  in, 

21. 
Saxe-Coburg,  compulsory  cont.  s.  in,  21. 
Saxe-Gotha,  compulsory  cont.  s.  in,  21. 
Saxe-Meiningen,  compulsory  cont.  s.  in, 

21. 
Saxe-Weimar,   compulsory  cont.   s.  in, 

21. 
Saxony,  com.  ss.,  contrast  with  those  in 

BerUn,   147;  compulsory  cont.  s.  in, 

21;  separate  s.  system,  8. 
Scholarship  appointees,  11. 
Scholarships  in  secondary  ss.,  10. 
Schoneberg,  com.  Real-s.,  160;  Handels- 

real-s.,  29. 
School  arrest,  54. 
School    conditions,    comparison    of,    in 

Germany  and  the  United  States,  223- 

227. 
School  construction,  9. 
School  decoration,  absence  of,  39  f. 
School  equipment,  9. 
School  excursions,  170-171. 
School  expenditure  per  capita,  38. 
School  incentives,  136-137. 
School  museum,  130-131. 
School  population,  secondary,  11. 
Schoolrooms,  available  for  religious  in- 
struction, 134. 
School  sessions,  54-56;  in  Munich  com. 

cont.  8.,  123. 
School  support,  37-38,  193-194. 
School  transportation,  in  Munich,  123. 
School  year,  54,  122-123,  226;  compari- 
son of,  in  Germany  and  the  United 

States,  224-225. 


INDEX 


257 


Schools,  cont.,  6,  12;  elementary,  6,  10- 

11,  12;  examination  of,  7-8;  inspec- 
tion of,  7-8;  state  institutions,  7;  sec- 
ondary, 10;  technical,  5;  vocational, 

12.  See  also  under  various  types  of 
ss.,  as  commercial,  elementary,  high- 
er, industrial,  middle,  secondary, 
trade,  vocational. 

Schwarzburg  -  Sondershausen,  compul- 
sorj'  cont.  s.  in,  21. 

Science,  com.    See  Commercial  science. 

Science,  natural,  in  Frankfort  com. 
Realschule  program,  156. 

Secondary  com.  ss.,  chap  v.;  classified, 
144,  146;  early,  139;  types  of,  142- 
146.  See  also  Frankfort  commercial 
institute;  and  Leipzig  commercial 
institute. 

Secondary  S3.,  10,  12,  16-18;  population, 
11;  relations  with  elementary  ss., 
17-18;  vocational,  18. 

Service,  social,  as  s.  aim,  14. 

Sessions,  s.,  24,  54—56. 

Shipping  system  in  Germany,  lesson  on, 
in  lower  com.  s.,  73-75. 

Singing,  in  Frankfort  com.  Realschule 
program,  156. 

Six-year  ss.,  17. 

Social  democracy,  tabooed  by  the  gov- 
ernment, 66. 

Social  life,  stratification  of,  5. 

Social  needs,  function  of  cont.  s.  in  satis- 
fying, 233-234. 

Spanish  language,  elective,  in  Cologne 
s.,  214-215;  in  com.  higher  s.,  Frank- 
fort, 162;  in  Leipzig  com.  institute, 
177,  179,  188. 

SpeciaUzation,  4-6. 

Spelling,  absence  of  instruction  in,  70. 

Stadtische  Handelslehranstalt.  See 
Frankfort  commercial  institute. 

Standard  of  living,  comparative,  230. 

State  control  of  education,  8. 

Stein,  von,  reorganization  under,  8. 

Stenography,  study  of,  in  com.  cont.  ss., 
104-105;  in  com.  higher  s.,  Frankfort, 
162;  in  Dortmund  s.,  114—115;  in 
Frankfort  com.  Realschule  program, 
156;  in  girla'  com.  ss.,  108;  in  Leipzig 
com.  institute,  175,  177,  188;  in  Mu- 


nich com.  cont.  s.,  121,  123, 133;  speed 

attained  in  com.  cont.  ss.,  104,  110; 

systems  of,   104-105;  week  hours  in 

lower  com.  ss.,  59  f.,  in  girls'  com.  ss., 

109  n. 
Stratification,  social  and  industrial,  5-7. 
Student  Ufe,  at  Cologne,  209-211. 
Students.    See  under  Cologne  college  of 

commerce. 
Subjects  of  instruction,  in  BerUn  cont. 

ss.,   15-16;  in  lower  com.  ss.,  58-60. 
Sunday  sessions,  in  cont.  ss.,  55  f. 
Support,  national,  220-221. 
Switzerland,   cont.  ss.  investigated  in, 

231-232. 


Tax,  local,  for  com.  ss.,  37. 
Taxation,   scheme  of,  in  German  eco- 
nomic hfe,  63  ff. 
Teachers,   appointment  of,   40;   classes 

of,  41;  in  cont.  ss.,  40-42;  in  Munich 

com.  cont.  s.,  136;  quahfications  of, 

9,  36,  40  ff.;  salaries  of,  in  com.  ss.,  41; 

training  of,  9,  226. 
Technical  colleges,  18. 
Technical  ss.,  5;  middle,  141;  secondary, 

18. 
Technical  skill,  cultivation  of,  14. 
Technology,  instruction  in,  at  Cologne, 

214;  in  Leipzig  com.  institute,   177, 

182-183. 
Tertiary  group  of  schools,  18. 
Text  books,  absence  of  in  lower  com.  S3., 

73;  choice  of,  9. 
Theological  faculty,  18. 
Theory  of  exchange,  in  Munich  com. 

cont.  s.,  121,  126,  135. 
Topics  of  instruction  in  cont.  S3.,  61  f. 
Trade  methods,  3-4. 
Trade  regulations,  imperial,  13-14,  42- 

44,  72;  regarding  cont.  sa.,  21,  228- 

229. 
Trade  ss.,  15;  middle,  141;  secondary, 

18. 
Training  for  citizenship,   in  com.   ss., 

131-132,  135. 
Transportation  of  pupils,   in   Munich, 

123. 
Trend  in  com.  s.  development,  194-195. 


258 


INDEX 


Tuition  foes,  borne  by  employer,  3S;  in- 
come from,  in  Prussian  com.  cont.  ss., 
2;);  in  Prussian  com.  ss.,  37;  in  second- 
ary ss.,  10. 

Turkish  language,  instruction  in,  at 
Cologne,  214-215. 

Typewriters,  American,  in  com.  cont. 
S3.,  105. 

Typewriting,  in  com.  cont.  ss.,  105-106; 
in  Dortmund  s.,  114-115;  in  girls' 
com.  ss.,  108;  in  Munich  com.  cont.  s., 
121,  123,  133;  week  hours  in  girls' 
com.  s.  courses,  109  n.,  in  lower  com. 
ss.,  59. 


Uniformity,    absence   of,    in    com.    s. 

programs,  223. 
Union   for   com.   instruction,    national, 

200. 
University,  10,  11,  12,  18;  at  Bonn,  200; 

degree,  216;  entrance  to,  29. 


V.^.CATI0N8,  122-123. 

Variety,  in  classroom  procedure,  75-76; 

of  curriculum,  222-223. 
Vocational  guidance,  44—48. 
Vocational  ss.,  12,   16;  secondary,  18. 
Vocational  training,  227-228;  not  found 

in  German  elementary  ss.,  228. 
Volksschule,  6,  12,  17,  30,  35,  40  f.,  87  f ., 


130,  172  f.;  contrasted  with  Mittel- 
schule,  13  f. 

Volunteer  certiBcate,  one-year,  17,  147, 
1G2;  course  for,  at  Munich,  121;  even- 
ing com.  classes  for  holders  of,  146. 

Vorschule,  17. 

Wages,    apprentices',    38;    of   com.   s. 

pupils,  50;  of  girl  stenographers,  110. 
Waldcek-Pyrmont,  compulsory  cont.  s. 

in,  21. 
Ware,  Fabian,  quoted,  4. 
Warenkunde,   130.    See  also  Commodi- 
ties of  commerce. 
Waste,  8.,  in  Germany  and  the  United 

States,  225  ff. 
Wechsellehre,  126.     See  also  Theory  of 

exchange. 
Wechselordnung.  See  Bill  of  exchange. 

regulations. 
William  I.,  unification  under,  8. 
Women  members  on  s.  governing  bodies, 

34. 
Workmen,    productivity   of   American, 

English,  French,  and  German,  229- 

230. 
Writing  and  reckoning  ss.,  26. 
Writing,  week  hours  in  lower  com.  ss., 

59. 
Written  work  in  com.  subjects,  69-70. 
Wiirtemburg,   compulsory   cont.   s.   in, 

21;  separate  s.  system,  8. 


T^HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


Commercial  Correspondence  and  Postal 
Information  (Revised) 

BY   CARL   L.    ALTMAIER. 

Director  of  Department  of  Commerce  and  Finance, 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia. 

Cloth.    i2mo.    Illustrated.    252  pages.    $.70. 


This  book  belongs  to  that  type  of  texts,  happily  increasing  in  number, 
in  which  useful  information  is  given  in  simple,  concrete,  usable  form. 
The  old  edition  set  the  pace  for  books  of  its  kind  and  it  has  been  widely 
used  for  several  years.  In  the  new  edition  the  author  has  improved  the 
opportunity  both  to  effect  certain  advantageous  changes  and  to  make 
important  additions.  There  is  a  new  chapter  on  Letter  Filing  and  Card 
Indexing,  and  the  chapter  on  Postal  Information  has-been  re-written 
and  enlarged  to  include  the  latest  rulings  in  this  field. 

The  whole  purpose  of  the  book  is  to  help  the  student  to  write  a  good 
letter,  to  carry  on  a  successful  correspondence  in  the  commercial  field. 
There  is  a  chapter  on  the  importance  of  letter  writing,  another  on  the 
technique  of  a  business  letter,  a  third  on  the  composition  of  such  a  letter, 
and  others  on  letters  of  various  kinds.  One  chapter  is  devoted  to  the 
Making  of  Contracts  by  Mail  and  by  Telegram,  and  another  to  Tele- 
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questions  and  exercises  are  abundant  throughout. 

The  book  belongs  to  the  Macmillan  Commercial  Series  edited  by  Presi- 
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Elements  of  Business  Arithmetic 


BY  ANSON  H.   BIGELOW 
Formerly  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Lead,  S.  D., 

and  W.  A.  ARNOLD 
Director  of  Business  Training,  Woodbine,  Iowa  Normal  School 

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Books  on  arithmetic  have  usually  been  written  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  scholar  who  is  primarily  interested  in  mathematical  principles. 
For  him  the  development  of  these  principles  is  the  important  thing  and 
the  field  of  their  application  is  more  or  less  a  matter  of  chance.  The 
view-point  of  this  book  is  different.  It  is  that  of  the  business  man. 
For  him,  practical  methods  are  more  important  than  arithmetical  prin- 
ciples. The  authors  have  taken  great  pains  to  acquaint  themselves 
with  the  business  man's  problems  and  his  methods  of  applying  arithmetic 
to  the  solution  of  them;  and  they  have  presented  these  problems  and 
methods  with  the  clearness  and  accuracy  of  the  experienced  teacher. 

The  school  can  scarcely  give  that  thorough  acquaintance  with  business 
forms  and  technique  that  comes  only  with  actual  office  experience,  but  in 
this  book  the  authors  have  used  so  many  business  forms  in  the  statement 
of  problems  and  have  so  clearly  described  business  methods  that  the 
student  must  feel  more  or  less  at  home  with  them.  It  provides  a  training 
that  should  enable  the  average  student  to  go  into  a  business  office  and 
make  good  in  his  arithmetical  computations. 

It  emphasizes  the  formation  of  correct  habits  in  arithmetical  computa- 
tion, and  it  provides  enough  drill  exercises  and  problems  to  furnish 
abundant  practice  in  the  solution  of  practical  arithmetical  problems. 
A  wise  selection  of  important  topics  and  thorough  drill  upon  those 
selected  is  the  principle  that  has  been  followed.  The  book  can  be  com- 
pleted in  a  half  year. 


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THE  MEANING  AND   PRACTICE  OF 

Commercial  Education 

"By  CHEESMAN  A.   HERRICK,   Ph.D. 
President  Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania 

Cloth,  ismo.,  XV  +  378  pages.    $1.25 

The  book  above  mentioned  was  prepared  to  explain  the  idea  and 
describe  the  actual  workings  of  commercial  schools.  It  treats 
commercial  education  from  various  points  of  view,  and  shows  that  this  form 
of  instruction  is  a  result  of  present  economic  conditions  and  a  natural  step 
in  our  educational  development.  The  author  shows  also  that  special  edu- 
cation for  the  present  commercial  age  is  both  possible  and  desirable,  and 
that  such  education  will  gradually  bring  about  a  higher  form  of  commer- 
cialism. 

The  author  reviews  the  movements  to  furnish  commercial  education 
in  various  countries,  including  Germany  and  Austria,  France  and  Bel- 
gium, England  and  the  United  States.  The  treatment  of  each  country  is 
from  the  standpoint  of  general  education,  and  the  account  is  based  on  the 
latest  information.  For  the  United  States  a  series  of  chapters  are  devoted 
to  the  Private  Commercial  School,  the  High  School  of  Commerce,  the 
Curriculum  of  the  Secondary  Commercial  School,  and  the  Higher  School 
of  Commerce.  The  final  chapter  gathers  up  the  discussion  in  a  statement 
of  conclusions  and  recommendations. 

An  appendix  furnishes  a  goodly  number  of  curricula  for  schools  of 

various  grades  both  at  home  and  abroad.  The  value  of  the  work  is 
further  increased  by  a  select  bibliography  of  the  subject,  including  nearly 
three  hundred  titles,  which  will  be  found  of  no  small  service  by  both  stu- 
dents and  teachers. 


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Business   Arithmetic   for   Secondary  Schools 

By  ERNEST  L.   THURSTON 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Washington,  D.C. 
Cloth,  i2mo,  illiistralcd,  431  pages.    $i.ooi 


This  book  is  designed  for  use  in  those  schools  in  which  it  is 
desired  to  emphasize  the  practical  rather  than  the  merely  theoretical 
phases  of  the  subject.  The  principles  of  arithmetic  are  by  no 
means  neglected ;  in  fact,  the  simple  logical  development  and  state- 
ment of  these  principles  is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  features  of 
the  book.  The  author  docs  not  stop  here,  however,  but  goes  on  to 
show  how  arithmetic  is  used  in  the  actual  processes  of  business  life. 
The  book  not  only  furnishes  an  excellent  drill  in  arithmetical  prin- 
ciples and  processes,  but  it  introduces  the  student  to  business 
technique. 

Problems  are  original  and  vital  and  they  are  numerous  enough 
to  provide  abundant  practice  without  becoming  a  burden.  The  great 
variety  of  form  in  which  they  are  stated  serves  to  increase  interest 
and  to  emphasize  principles  rather  than  form  of  statement. 

Among  the  topics  of  common  interest  treated  are  rapid  adding, 
short  methods  in  multiplication,  averaging,  making  change,  house- 
hold expenses,  payment  for  service,  advertising,  aliquot  parts,  practi- 
cal measurements,  composite  units,  graphic  arithmetic,  insurance, 
savings  accounts,  bids  and  estimates. 

The  book  is  alive  from  beginning  to  end. 


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AUG  t  2  I95i 

j^5- 

JAft/4 

rcD   0<>   19B3^ 

'^^'^  2  81963 

^.^■-    -^ 

^^O'D  iD.URj_ 

iB  JAN  29  1973 

^AN  2  8  1973 

Form  L-9-15«ill.'-'7 

1 

UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    001  006  379    o 


